Steels Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition Copyright 2015 ASM International G. Krauss All rights reserved asminternational.

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1 Steels Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition Copyright 2015 ASM International G. Krauss All rights reserved asminternational.org Contents Preface to the Second Edition of Steels: Processing, Structure, and Performance....xi Preface to Steels: Processing, Structure, and Performance (2005)....xiv Preface to Steels: Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles (1990)....xvi Preface to Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel (1980)...xix About the Author...xxi CHAPTER 1 Introduction Purpose of Text, Microstructure and Analysis, Steel Definitions, and Specifications... 1 Purpose of This Book Size Scales Instrumentation Integration of Microstructure into the Physical Metallurgy of Steel Microstructure of Steels Steels Definitions... 4 Steel Specifications... 6 References CHAPTER 2 History and Primary Steel Processing... 9 The Early Metallographers Naming of Phases and Microstructures in Steels Current Steelmaking References

2 iv / Steels Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition CHAPTER 3 Phases and Structures The Iron- Carbon Equilibrium Diagram Crystal Structures of Iron Effects of Carbon Crystal Structures in Fe- C Alloys The Eutectoid Equilibrium and Effects of Alloying Elements Critical Temperatures The Peritectic Equilibrium and Reaction in Steels Crystal Imperfections and Slip Diffusion in Steel References CHAPTER 4 Pearlite, Ferrite, and Cementite Eutectoid Transformation Structure of Pearlite Pearlite Transformation Kinetics Alloying Elements and Pearlite Formation Interphase Precipitation Divorced Eutectoid Transformation Dispersed Carbide Particles in Ferrite Proeutectoid Phases Proeutectoid Phase Formation References CHAPTER 5 Martensite General Considerations Martensitic Transformation Kinetics Crystallography of Martensitic Transformation Morphology of Ferrous Martensites Plate Martensite Lath Martensite References CHAPTER 6 Bainite Bainite An Intermediate Temperature Transformation Product of Austenite Bainite Transformation Start Temperatures Bainite versus Ferritic Microstructures

3 Contents / v Upper Bainite Lower Bainite Bainite Formation Mechanisms Mechanical Behavior of Ferrite- Carbide Bainites References CHAPTER 7 Ferritic Microstructures The Dubé Classification System for Proeutectoid Ferritic Microstructures General Considerations Cooling- Rate- Induced Changes in Ferrite Classification Systems for Ferritic Microstructures References CHAPTER 8 Austenite in Steel Introduction The Critical Importance of Austenite Austenite Grain Size and Measurement Austenite Formation Time-Temperature-Austenitizing Diagrams Austenite Grain Growth in the Absence of Second Phases Austenite Grain Size in Aluminum- Killed Steels Austenite Grain- Size Control in Microalloyed Steels Hot Deformation of Austenite References CHAPTER 9 Primary Processing Effects on Steel Microstructure and Properties Inclusions Types and Origins Inclusion Identification and Characterization Effect of Inclusions on Mechanical Properties Solidification: Chemical Changes Solidification Dendrites and Interdendritic Segregation Hot Work and Its Effect on Solidification Structure Banded Microstructures The Effect of Banding on Mechanical Properties References

4 vi / Steels Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition CHAPTER 10 Isothermal and Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams Isothermal Transformation Diagrams Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams Continuous Cooling Transformation and Bar Diameter Summary References CHAPTER 11 Deformation, Strengthening, and Fracture of Ferritic Microstructures Tensile Deformation, Strain Hardening, and Ductile Fracture The Ductile- to- Brittle Transition in bcc Ferrite Continuous and Discontinuous Yielding of Ferritic Microstructures Aging Phenomena in Ferritic Microstructures Grain- Size Effects on Strength and Fracture of Ferritic Microstructures Dispersion Strengthening of Ferritic Microstructures Solid- Solution Strengthening of Ferritic Microstructures References CHAPTER 12 Low-Carbon Steels General Considerations Low-Carbon Steel Hot-Rolled Ferrite-Pearlite Microstructures Low- Carbon Steel Processing by Cold Rolling and Annealing Processing of Cold- Rolled and Annealed Sheet Steels for High Formability Interstitial-Free Steels High-Strength, Low-Alloy Low-Carbon Steels Low- Carbon Dual- Phase and TRIP Steels Background Dual- Phase Steels Microstructure and Properties TRIP Steels: Microstructure and Properties Low- Carbon Fully Martensitic Sheet Steels High- Manganese TWIP Sheet Steels Quenched and Partitioned Sheet Steels References

5 Contents / vii CHAPTER 13 Normalizing, Annealing, and Spheroidizing Treatments; Ferrite/Pearlite and Spherical Carbides Full Annealing Normalizing Spheroidizing and Spherical Carbides Mechanical Properties of Ferrite- Pearlite Microstructures References CHAPTER 14 Non- Martensitic Strengthening of Medium- Carbon Steels Microalloying and Bainitic Strengthening Processing Considerations Microalloying Considerations Microstructure of Microalloyed Forging Steels Mechanical Properties of Microalloyed Forging Steels Direct- Cooled Steels with Nontraditional Bainitic Microstructures Summary References CHAPTER 15 High- Carbon Steels Fully Pearlitic Microstructures and Wire and Rail Applications Mechanical Properties of Fully Pearlitic Microstructures Rail Steels: Structure and Performance High- Strength Patented and Cold- Drawn Pearlitic Steel Wire Wire- Drawing Deformation of Pearlite for High- Strength Steel Wire Fracture Mechanisms of Patented and Drawn Steel Wire Torsional Deformation and Delamination of Patented and Drawn Wires Effects of Aging and Galvanizing on Properties of Patented and Drawn Wires References CHAPTER 16 Hardness and Hardenability Hardness and Carbon Content Martensite Strength Definitions of Hardenability Hardness Distribution Factors Affecting Cooling Rates

6 viii / Steels Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition Severity of Quench Quantitative Hardenability Determination of Ideal Size Quantitative Approaches Jominy Test for Hardenability Boron Effects and Hardenability Phosphorus Effects and Hardenability Summary References CHAPTER 17 Tempering of Steel Mechanical Property Changes Alloying Elements and Tempering Structural Changes on Tempering Matrix Changes during Tempering Oxide Colors on Tempered Steels References CHAPTER 18 Deformation, Mechanical Properties, and Fracture of Quenched and Tempered Carbon Steels Deformation and Fracture of As- Quenched Martensite Dynamic Strain Aging in Martensite Mechanical Behavior of Low- Temperature- Tempered Martensite Mechanical Behavior of High- Temperature- Tempered Martensite Summary of Microstructure, Strengthening, and Fracture Mechanisms of Quenched and Tempered Carbon and Low Alloy Carbon Steels References CHAPTER 19 Low Toughness and Embrittlement Phenomena in Steels Cracking During Primary Processing Hot Shortness Associated with Copper Overheating and Burning during Forging Aluminum Nitride Embrittlement Reheat or Stress Relief Cracking Intergranular Embrittlement in Hardened Steels General Comments Quench Embrittlement Tempered Martensite Embrittlement Temper Embrittlement

7 Contents / ix Liquid-Metal-Induced Embrittlement Hydrogen Embrittlement General Considerations and Industrial Scenarios Hydrogen Embrittlement Mechanisms, Microstructure, and Fracture Hydrogen Attack References CHAPTER 20 Residual Stresses, Distortion, and Heat Treatment Origins of Distortion Origins of Residual Stresses Heat Treatments to Reduce Surface Residual Tensile Stresses Evaluation and Prediction of Residual Stresses and Distortion References CHAPTER 21 Surface Hardening Flame Hardening Induction Heating Carburizing: Processing Principles Carburizing Alloying, Processing, and Microstructure Carburizing Surface Oxidation in Gas Atmospheres Carburizing: Residual Stresses and Microstructure Carburizing: Bending Fatigue and Fracture Carburizing/Through-Hardening Contact Fatigue, Microstructure, and Fracture Nitriding Carbonitriding Ferritic Nitrocarburizing Summary References CHAPTER 22 Surface Modification Introduction Plasma Nitriding Plasma Carburizing Low- Pressure (Vacuum) Carburizing Ion Implantation and Ion Mixing Physical Vapor Deposition: Processing Physical Vapor Deposition: Microstructures Chemical Vapor Deposition

8 x / Steels Processing, Structure, and Performance, Second Edition Salt Bath Coating Process Laser and Electron Beam Surface Modification Summary References CHAPTER 23 Stainless Steels Alloy Design and Phase Equilibria Austenitic Stainless Steels Intergranular Carbides in Austenitic Stainless Steels Martensite Formation in Austenitic Stainless Steels Other Phases in Austenitic Stainless Steels Other Austenitic Stainless Steels Heat Treatment of Austenitic Stainless Steels Ferritic Stainless Steels Intermetallic Phases in Ferritic Stainless Steels C (885 F) Embrittlement in Ferritic Stainless Steels Martensitic Stainless Steels Precipitation- Hardening Stainless Steels Duplex Stainless Steels Summary References CHAPTER 24 Tool Steels Introduction Classification of Tool Steels Tool Steel Alloy Design Primary Processing of Tool Steels Annealing of Tool Steels Stress Relief of Tool Steels Hardening of Tool Steels Preheating and Austenitizing Hardenability and Martensite Formation Grain- Boundary Carbide Formation Tempering of Tool Steels Retained Austenite Transformation and Double Tempering in Tool Steels Summary References APPENDIX Hardness Conversions Index