Production of PV cells
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1 Production of PV cells MWp Average market growth : 32% 2004: 67% rest ribbon Si a-si mono c-si multi c-si Total Estimation money-market: /Wp ~5000x10 6
2 Primary challenge of PV Cost reduction of factor 5 to become competitive with conventional electricity Today PV module price: /W p (W p = Watt peak) Integral approach: Reducing module costs raw materials & labor, investments efficiency, lifetime Optimizing systems integration area and power related costs Note: overall optimum highest efficiency
3 Thin-film solar cells Advantages of thin film PV technologies: savings in material and energy consumption large area deposition monolithic integration energy pay back time implementation in building industry
4 Thin-film solar cells Requirements: long term stability (lifetime of years) reliability availability of source materials cost effective no environmental hazards
5 Thin-film solar cells Absorber materials less than a few µm thick: Silicon thin films (a-si:h, a-sige:h, µc-si:h, proto c-si, poly c-si:h) II-VI compounds (CdTe) II-IV-VI compounds (CuInSe 2, CuInGaSe 2 ) Thin film crystalline Si or GaAs (lift-off) Dye-sensitized nanocrystalline TiO 2 (nc-tio 2 ) Fully organic solar cells
6 Laboratory cell performance
7 Why thin-film solar cells? Solar cell c-si TF Si CuInSe 2 Efficiency 12 % 6 % 10 % Energy pay back time 2.1 years 1.4 years 1.25 years Palz and Zibetta Annual insolation 1800 kwh/(m 2 year) Energy pay back time: the time required for an energy conversion system or device to produce as much energy as is consumed for its production
8 Composition of the Earth Total : S: 520 Ge: 7 Fe Si As: 5 Ga:15 P: In: 0.1 Se: 0.09 Cu: 70 Te: Cd: 0.15
9 Material required for 1 MW p 7.5 t Fe + 15 t Cu + 27 t In + 57 t In + 64 t Ga + 56 t Cd t S 37 t Se 1800 t kristallines Silizium 15 t P 69 t As 64 t Te 16 t FeS 2 79 t CuInSe 2 72 t InP 133 t GaAs 120 t CdTe 11 t a-si 16 t FeS 2 79 t CuInSe t c-si 72 t InP 133 t GaAs 120 t CdTe 11 t a-si η(%) d(µm)
10 Thin-film Si solar cells Al Al SiO 2 n+ Glass superstrate Thin film Si (0.3-5 µm) TCO p-type p p-type sc Si Al p++ c-si ( µm) Material usage strongly reduced + - Intrinsic a-si:h Energy and cost strongly reduced n-type Metal electrode a-si:h ( µm)
11 Why thin-film solar cells? Solar cell Si raw material Present efficiency Future efficiency Peak Power Peak Power c-si g/m 2 14 % 16 % 160 W p /m W p /g TF Si 4-5 g/m 2 7 % 10 % 100 W p /m 2 20 W p /g
12 Why thin-film solar cells? Rigid c-si PV modules Flexible a-si:h PV modules
13 a-si:h solar cells Superstrate solar cell structure (Light enters through carrier) Substrate solar cell structure Glass superstrate TCO TCO p-type p-type Intrinsic a-si:h Intrinsic a-si:h n-type Metal electrode n-type Metal electrode Metal or polymer foil substrate
14 a-si:h solar cells + First thin-film material to go commercial + Laboratory cell efficiency 13%, module 10% + Multi-junction cell capability (tandem or triple pin junctions a-si/a-sige/µc-si) - Stabilized performance - Deposition rate (rf PECVD nm/s)
15 a-si:h solar cells Glass SnO 2 p-type a-sic:h intrinsic a-si:h E g = ev n-type a-si:h Al or Ag - + Active material: Amorphous silicon (a-si:h) direct semiconductor band-gap variation ( ev) thickness 0.3 microns
16 CIGS solar cells Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide Cu (In, Ga) Se 2 NiAl MgF 2 TCO (ZnO:Al) E g =3.2 ev TCO (intrinsic ZnO) CdS (n-type) E g =2.45 ev CuInSe 2 ( p-type) E g =1.0 ev Mo Glass Active material: alloy Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S) 2 direct semiconductor positive role of Na band-gap variation ( ev) thickness 1-3 microns
17 CIGS solar cells ± Just introduced to the market + Laboratory cell efficiency >19% module 13-15%, minimodule 17% + Single, graded-layer junction (low V oc ) - Improve control over 5 to 6 elements that are applied in varying concentrations (Scale up) - Increase production yield - In and Ga availability (< 1000 MWp/yr) Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide Cu (In, Ga) Se 2
18 CIGS solar cells Production methods: Vacuum methods: Co-evaporation (Global Solar, Solibro) Sequential layer deposition (sputtering) (Shell Solar, Showa Shell) Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide Cu (In, Ga) Se 2 Non-vacuum methods: Electrodeposition Nano powders, printing
19 CdTe solar cells Cadmium Telluride Glass TCO (ZnO:Al) CdS (n-type) CdTe ( p-type) Metal contact E g =3.2 ev E g =2.45 ev E g =1.45 ev Active material: CdTe band-gap 1.45 ev thickness 1-3 microns
20 CdTe solar cells Cadmium Telluride ± On the market (First Solar) + Laboratory cell efficiency 16%, module 11% + Atmospheric deposition possible - Single junction (low V oc ) - Avoid extrinsic contact degradation - Manufacturing involves cadmium
21 CdTe solar cells Cadmium Telluride Production methods: Close-space sublimation (Antec) Electro-deposition (BP Solar) Screen printing (Matsushita) Evaporation (Solar Cells Inc.) Spray deposition
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