Chapter 32 Resistance Welding and Solid State Welding. Materials Processing. Classification of Processes. MET Manufacturing Processes
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1 MET Manufacturing Processes Chapter 32 Resistance Welding and Solid State Welding Before you begin: Turn on the sound on your computer. There is audio to accompany this presentation. Materials Processing Chapters Chapters Chapters Chapters Chapter 31-2 Classification of Processes Figure 30-1 Classification of common welding processes along with their AWS designations. Chapter
2 Resistance Welding Uses both heat and pressure to induce coalescence. Heat is generated through electrical resistance of welding circuit. Pressure is applied to control contact resistance at the interface and then induce coalescence after melting has occurred. Chapter 32-4 Heat Generation Heat is generated through resistance: H = I 2 R t where: H = total heat (joules) I = current (amperes) R = resistance (ohms) t = time (seconds) Figure 32-1 The basic resistance welding circuit. Chapter 32-5 Creating Resistance Resistance (R) comes from three sources: Bulk Resistance Includes materials and electrodes. Material s resistance determined by conductivity and thickness. Electrode resistance is usually low. Contact Resistance Resistance between electrodes and workpiece which is controlled by electrode shape, size, material, and pressure. Faying Surface Resistance Resistance of surfaces to be joined. Should be the highest resistance to generate the highest temperature concentration. Function of surface finish, contaminants, pressure, & contact area. Chapter
3 Heat Generation Heat is generated at the point of maximum resistance. Critical to keep unwanted resistances small as possible. Essential to keep bulk resistance and contact resistance as low as possible. These take away from the process and can create negative effects. Faying Surface Resistance is the one used to create enough heat for coalescence between the materials. Chapter 32-7 Heat Generation Figure 32-2 The desired temperature distribution across the electrodes and workpiece during resistance welding. Chapter 32-8 Faying Surface Resistance Faying surface resistance must be controlled to produce quality welds. This resistance is a function of the several factors: Quality of the surfaces surface finish and/or roughness. Presence of non-conductive scale, dirt and other contaminants. Pressure Contact area Chapter
4 Pressure Because the pressure induces a forging action, resistance welds can be produced at lower temperatures than other welding processes. If too little pressure is applied, contact resistance will be high and surface burning and pitting will occur. If too much pressure is applied, molten or softened metal may be expelled from between the faying surfaces. Chapter Current Temperature is primarily dependent on current, both magnitude and duration. Production resistance welders programmed to follow specific cycle of pressure and current. Figure 32-3 A typical current and pressure cycle for resistance welding. This cycle includes forging and postheating operations.. Chapter Power Supply Example of programmable resistance welder controller. Chapter
5 Power Supply Since overall resistance is usually low, high currents are required. Remember H = I 2 Rt. Power transformers convert line high voltage and low current into low voltage and high current for welding: Voltage: 0.5 to 10 vdc Current: up to 100,000 A Chapter Resistance Welding Processes Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) is used extensively in the automotive industry. Each automobile may contain anywhere from spot welds Typical weld size: - inch dia. Primarily used on thin sheets of steel. Chapter Profile of a Spot Weld Quality spot welds will look like a nugget. There will be little or no indentation of the metal surfaces. Upon tensile test or tear test, metal immediately surrounding weld should be first to fail. Chapter
6 Profile of a Spot Weld Figure 32-5 A spot-weld nugget between two sheets of aluminum alloy. Figure 32-6 Tear test of a satisfactory spot weld, showing how failure occurs outside of the weld. Chapter Equipment Different variations of RSW equipment can be purchased to meet the production requirements. Light-duty uses RSW uses a rocker-arm machine. Larger equipment used in auto industry may be able to produce up to 200 simultaneous welds in less than 60 seconds. Portable spot welding equipment is available to extend application of the process where it was originally limited. Transguns integrate the transformer/power supply into the welding gun. Chapter Equipment Examples of spot-welding equipment. Chapter
7 Equipment Electrodes must: Reach area to be welded Conduct current Apply pressure Help dissipate heat Resistance Welder Manufacturers Alliance (RWMA/AWS), has standardized electrodes geometries and materials. Electrode materials typically copper-based alloys, refractory materials and refractory-metal composites. Chapter Unique Characteristic of RSW One distinct advantage of resistance spot welding is the ability to join dissimilar metals. Most other welding processes require the parent or base materials to be the same. RSW can also join metals of varying thickness. Electrode size and/or conductivity used to control temperature and insure even fusion. Table 32.1 (next slide) shows the joining capabilities of dissimilar metals. Chapter Metal Combinations Chapter
8 Seam Welds (RSEW) Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW) is similar to spot welding. Variations: By overlapping the spot welds, the resulting series of welds can be used to form a seam. Used to produce gas or liquid-tight vessels. Also can be used to create butt welds by rolling plate into tube and joining ends. Used extensively in production of pipe and tubing. Chapter Seam Welds (RSEW) Figure 32-8 Seam welds made with overlapping spots of varied spacing. Schematic representation of the seam-welding process. Chapter Seam Welds (RSEW) Examples of resistance seam welding (RSEW) equipment. Chapter
9 Seam Welds (RSEW) Figure Using highfrequency AC current to produce a resistance seam weld in buttwelded tubing. Arrows from the contacts indicate the path of the high-frequency current. Chapter Projection Welding (RPW) For mass production operations, two major limitations to spot welding are present: Small electrodes require frequent attention. Process is only designed to create 1 weld at a time (at each electrode). Projection welding can be used to overcome these limitations. Projection welding can also be used to attach hardware such as bolts and nuts to other metal parts. Chapter Projection Welding Dimples are embossed into the workpiece wherever welds are desired: Different sizes and shapes can be employed. Multiple weld spots can be produced simultaneously. Electrodes are then replaced by larger area electrodes in the press machine: Eliminates the need for single, small-size electrodes capable of producing only one weld at a time. Chapter
10 Projection Welding Figure Principle of projection welding (a) prior to application of current and pressure and (b) after formation of the welds. Chapter Projection Welding Examples of the projection welding process and equipment. Examples of fasteners used in projection welding. Note the dimples. Chapter RW Advantages Very rapid. Equipment can be fully automated. Conserve material (no filler, shielding gases, flux). Minimal distortion of welded parts. Skilled operators (welders) not needed. Dissimilar metals can be joined. High degree of reliability and reproducibility can be achieved. Chapter
11 RW Disadvantages Equipment has high initial cost. Limitations to the thickness of materials that can be joined (generally less than ¼ in.). Skilled maintenance personnel needed to service and maintain equipment. Some materials and/or surfaces will require special preparation prior to welding. Chapter RW Process Summary Example of a Transgun Chapter Classification of Processes Figure 30-1 Classification of common welding processes along with their AWS designations. Chapter
12 Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding Roll welding or roll bonding Friction or inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding Diffusion welding Explosive welding Chapter Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding (FOW) Forge seam welding Cold welding Roll welding or roll bonding Friction or inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding Diffusion welding Explosive welding Chapter Forge Welding (FOW) Most ancient of the welding processes. Has historic and practical value. Helps us to understand how and why modern welding processes were developed. Key historic examples: Armor makers Blacksmiths Chapter
13 Forge Welding (FOW) Very crude processes: Uncertainty of heat source No way to measure temperature Judged by color Difficult to maintain metal cleanliness Great amount of skill required Results were highly variable Chapter Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding (FOW) Cold welding Roll welding or roll bonding Friction or inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding Diffusion welding Explosive welding Chapter Forge Seam Welding (FOW) Heated strips of steel are formed into a cylinder and then edges are pressed into either a lap or butt configuration. Mostly been replaced by other welding processes. Used primarily in the manufacture of pipe. Discussed in detail in chapter 17. Chapter
14 Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding (CW) Roll welding or roll bonding Friction or inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding Diffusion welding Explosive welding Figure Small parts joined by cold welding. Chapter Cold Welding (CW) Variation of forge welding except uses no heat. Produces metallurgical bonds by means of cold plastic deformation: Surfaces must be cleaned and placed in contact Placed in localized pressure sufficient to cause 30 50% plastic deformation Process is generally confined to joining small parts from highly ductile materials: Example: crimping of electrical connectors. Chapter Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding (CW) Roll welding or roll bonding (ROW) Friction or inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding Diffusion welding Explosive welding Figure Examples of roll-bonded refrigerator freezer evaporators. Note the raised channels that have been formed between the roll-bonded sheets. Chapter
15 Roll Welding or Roll Bonding Used to join two or more sheets or plates of metal. Surfaces must be clean and contaminant free for welding to occur. Accomplished by passing sheets simultaneously through rolling mill. Can be performed hot or cold. Chapter Roll Welding or Roll Bonding Examples of roll welding include: Alclad corrosion resistance aluminum bonded to high-strength aluminum. Steel w/stainless steel cladding. U.S. coins. Variation used to create refrigerator freezer panels: Uses special coating that prevents bonding Where coating is used, bonding does not occur These regions can then be used to flow coolant Chapter Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding (CW) Roll welding or roll bonding Friction and inertia welding (FRW) Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding Diffusion welding Explosive welding Chapter
16 Friction & Inertia Welding (FRW) Heat required to produce the joint is generated by friction heating at the interfaces. Surfaces are square-cut, smooth. One piece is held stationary. Second piece is mounted in motor-driven chuck and rotated at high speed. Pieces brought in contact and pressure applied. Contact friction quickly generates elevated temperatures. Softened metal is squeezed out to form flash. Oxides and contaminants are also expelled in the flash. Chapter Friction & Inertia Welding (FRW) Ideal for joining dissimilar metals. Good for metals with very different melting points. Inertia welding is variation: Part is attached to rotating flywheel. Motor is used to bring part up to desired speed and then detached from motor. Pressure is applied between parts and kinetic energy is used to create friction and weld. Weld is completed with pressure continuing to be applied after rotation has stopped. Chapter Friction & Inertia Welding (FRW) Figure Sequence for making a friction weld. (a) Components with squares surfaces are inserted into a machine where one part is rotated and the other is held stationary. (b) The components are pushed together with a low axial pressure to clean and prepare the surfaces. (c) The pressure is increased, causing an increase in temperature, softening, and possibly some melting. (d) Rotation is stopped and pressure is increased rapidly, creating a forged joint with external flash. Chapter
17 Friction & Inertia Welding (FRW) Figure Schematic diagram of the equipment used for friction welding. Figure Schematic representation of the various steps in inertia welding. The rotating part is now attached to a large flywheel. Chapter Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding (CW) Roll welding or roll bonding Friction and inertia welding Friction stir welding (FSW) Ultrasonic welding Diffusion welding Explosive welding Chapter Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Used to make butt welds between plates of lower melting-point metals as well as thermoplastic polymers. Relatively new process No filler metal or shielding gas needed. Total heat input and distortion are low. Can be performed in any position. Requires access to only one side of the plate. Weld speed is slower than most fusion processes. Chapter
18 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Frictional heat is generated by non-consumable probe rotated at high speed between butting edges of rigidly clamped plates. Plasticized region is created, softened material flows to the back of the advancing probe and coalesces to form solid-state bond. Used in aircraft industry. Plates up to 2 in. have been welded from a single-side. Chapter Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Figure Schematic of the frictionstir welding process. The rotating probe generates frictional heat, while the shoulder provides additional friction heating and prevents expulsion of the softened material from the joint. Chapter Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Figure (a) Top surface of a frictionstir weld joining 1.5 mm and 1.65 mm thick aluminum sheets with 1500 rpm pin rotation. The welding tool has traversed left-to-right of the photo. (b) Metallurgical cross section through an alloy 356 aluminum casting that has been modified by friction-stir processing. Chapter
19 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Chapter Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding (CW) Roll welding or roll bonding Friction and inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding (USW) Diffusion welding Explosive welding Chapter Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Coalescence is produced by localized application of high frequency shear vibrations (10k 200K Hz). Surfaces are held together under light pressure. Some increase in temperature, but does not exceed ½ the melting point (on absolute scale). Chapter
20 Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Process is restricted to lap joint welding of thin materials (sheet, foil, wire). Maximum thickness is in for aluminum or in. for harder materials. Particularly valuable for joining dissimilar metals (table 32-4). Can also be used to join metals with some non-metals and with plastics. Chapter Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Chapter Ultrasonic Welding (USW) Figure Diagram of the equipment used in ultrasonic welding. Chapter
21 Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding (CW) Roll welding or roll bonding Friction and inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding (USW) Diffusion welding (DFW) Explosive welding Chapter Diffusion Welding (DFW) Occurs when properly prepared surfaces are maintained in contact under sufficient pressure, temperature, and time. Primary bonding mechanism is atomic diffusion. Used to join dissimilar materials and composite materials. Furnaces with protective or inert atmospheres can be used to join reactive materials such as titanium, beryllium, and zirconium. Chapter Diffusion Welding (DFW) Quality of weld depends on: Temperature. Time at temperature. Pressure. Surface condition of the material. Possible use of intermediate material layers which can either promote diffusion or prevent the formation of undesirable intermetallic compounds. Chapter
22 Diffusion Welding (DFW) Process is slow and applications are limited to lowvolume applications. Practical example: permanent joining of gage blocks (no heat necessary in this case). Example of a diffusion welded part. Chapter Solid-State Welding Processes Forge welding Forge seam welding Cold welding (CW) Roll welding or roll bonding Friction and inertia welding Friction stir welding Ultrasonic welding (USW) Diffusion welding Explosive welding (EXW) Chapter Explosive Welding (EXW) Primarily used to bond sheets of corrosion-resistant metal to heavier plates of base metal (cladding operation). Particular use when large areas are involved. Base metal is positioned on rigid base. Top sheet is inclined to it with small open angle. Explosive material is placed on top of two layers. Detonation takes place in progressive wave beginning where materials touch. Chapter
23 Explosive Welding (EXW) Bond strength is high. Plates can be subsequently processes (i.e. rolling). Dissimilar metals can be joined. Figure (Left) Schematic of the explosive welding process. (Right) Explosive weld between mild steel and stainless showing the characteristic wavy interface. Chapter Explosive Welding (EXW) Chapter The End See Oncourse for Videos Chapter
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