Petroleum Production Systems

Transcription

1 Petroleum Production Systems SECOND EDITION Michael J. Economides A. Daniel Hill Christine Ehlig-Economides Ding Zhu PRENTICE HALL Upper Saddle River, NJ Boston Indianapolis San Francisco New York Toronto Montreal London Munich Paris Madrid Capetown Sydney Tokyo Singapore Mexico City

2 Contents Foreword Preface About the Authors xv xvii xix Chapter 1 The Role of Petroleum Production Engineering Introduction Components of the Petroleum Production System Volume and Phase of Reservoir Hydrocarbons Permeability The Zone near the Well, the Sandface, and the Well Completion The Well The Surface Equipment Well Productivity and Production Engineering The Objectives of Production Engineering Organization of the Book Units and Conversions 15 References 18 Chapter 2 Production from Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs Introduction Steady-State Well Performance Transient Flow of Undersaturated Oil Pseudosteady-State Flow Transition to Pseudosteady State from Infinite Acting Behavior Wells Draining Irregular Patterns Inflow Performance Relationship Effects of Water Production, Relative Permeability Summary of Single-Phase Oil Inflow Performance Relationships 39 References 39 Problems 39 v

3 vi Contents Chapter 3 Production from Two-Phase Reservoirs Introduction Properties of Saturated Oil General Properties of Saturated Oil Property Correlations for Two-Phase Systems Two-Phase Flow in a Reservoir Oil Inflow Performance for a Two-Phase Reservoir Generalized Vogel Inflow Performance Fetkovich's Approximation 57 References 58 Problems 58 Chapter 4 Production from Natural Gas Reservoirs Introduction Gas Gravity Real Gas Law Correlations and Useful Calculations for Natural Gases Pseudocritical Properties from Gas Gravity Presence of Nonhydrocarbon Gases Gas Compressibility Factor Correction for Nonhydrocarbon Gases Gas Viscosity Gas Formation Volume Factor Gas Isothermal Compressibility Approximation ofgas Well Deliverability Gas Well Deliverability for Non-Darcy Flow Transient Flow of a Gas Well 84 References 91 Problems 93 Chapter 5 Production from Horizontal Wells Introduction Steady-State Well Performance The Joshi Model The Furui Model Pseudosteady-State Flow 103

4 Contents vii The Babu and Odeh Model The Economides et al. Model Inflow Performance Relationship for Horizontal Gas Wells Two-Phase Correlations for Horizontal Well Inflow Multilateral Well Technology 116 References 117 Problems 119 Chapter 6 The Near-Wellbore Condition and Damage Characterization; Skin Effects Introduction Hawkins' Formula Skin Components for Vertical and Inclined Wells Skin from Partial Completion and Well Deviation Horizontal Well Damage Skin Effect Well Completion Skin Factors Cased, Perforated Completions Slotted or Perforated Liner Completions Gravel Pack Completions Formation Damage Mechanisms Particle Plugging of Pore Spaces Mechanisms for Fines Migration Chemical Precipitation Fluid Damage: Emulsions, Relative Permeability, and Wettability Changes Mechanical Damage Biological Damage Sources of Formation Damage During Well Operations Drilling Damage Completion Damage Production Damage Injection Damage 162 References 163 Problems 165

5 viii Contents Chapter 7 Wellbore Flow Performance Introduction Single-Phase Flow of an Incompressible, Newtonian Fluid Laminar or Turbulent Flow Velocity Profiles Pressure-Drop Calculations Annular Flow Single-Phase Flow of a Compressible, Newtonian Fluid Multiphase Flow in Wells Holdup Behavior Two-Phase Flow Regimes Two-Phase Pressure Gradient Models Pressure Traverse Calculations 210 References 214 Problems 215 Chapter 8 Flow in Horizontal Wellbores, Wellheads, and Gathering Systems Introduction Flow in Horizontal Pipes Single-Phase Flow: Liquid Single-Phase Flow: Gas Two-Phase Flow Pressure Drop through Pipe Fittings Flow through Chokes Single-Phase Liquid Flow Single-Phase Gas Flow Gas-Liquid Flow Surface Gathering Systems Flow in Horizontal Wellbores Importance of Wellbore Pressure Drop Wellbore Pressure Drop for Single-Phase Flow Wellbore Pressure Drop for Two-Phase Flow 252 References 256 Problems 258

6 Contents ix Chapter 9 Well Deliverability Introduction Combination of Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) and Vertical Flow Performance (VFP) IPR and VFP of Two-Phase Reservoirs IPR and VFP in Gas Reservoirs 270 Problems 274 Chapter 10 Forecast of Well Production Introduction Transient Production Rate Forecast Material Balance for an Undersaturated Reservoir and Production Forecast Under Pseudosteady-State Conditions The General Material Balance for Oil Reservoirs The Generalized Expression Calculation of Important Reservoir Variables Production Forecast from a Two-Phase Reservoir: Solution Gas Drive Gas Material Balance and Forecast of Gas Well Performance 294 References 296 Problems 297 Chapter 11 Gas Lift Introduction Well Construction for Gas Lift Continuous Gas-Lift Design Natural versus Artificial Flowing Gradient Pressure of Injected Gas Point of Gas Injection Power Requirements for Gas Compressors Unloading Wells with Multiple Gas-Lift Valves Optimization of Gas-Lift Design Impact of Increase of Gas Injection Rate, Sustaining of Oil Rate with Reservoir Pressure Decline Maximum Production Rate with Gas Lift 314

7 X Contents 11.6 Gas-Lift Performance Curve Gas-Lift Requirements versus Time 328 References 332 Problems 333 Chapter 12 Pump-Assisted Lift Introduction Positive-Displacement Pumps Sucker Rod Pumping Progressing Cavity Pumps Dynamic Displacement Pumps Electrical Submersible Pumps Lifting Liquids in Gas Wells; Plunger Lift 359 References 362 Problems 362 Chapter 13 Weil Performance Evaluation Introduction Open-Hole Formation Evaluation Cased Hole Logs Cement Evaluation Cased Hole Formation Evaluation Production Log Evaluation Transient Well Analysis Rate Transient Analysis Wireline Formation Testing and Formation Fluid Sampling Well Rate and Pressure Transient Analysis Flow Regime Analysis 400 References 438 Problems 439 Chapter 14 Matrix Acidizing: Acid/Rock Interactions Introduction Acid-Mineral Reaction Stoichiometry Acid-Mineral Reaction Kinetics Laboratory Measurement of Reaction Kinetics Reactions of HC1 and Weak Acids with Carbonates 454

8 Contents xi Reaction of HF with Sandstone Minerals Reactions of Fluosilicic Acid with Sandstone Minerals Acid Transport to the Mineral Surface Precipitation of Acid Reaction Products 461 References 464 Problems 466 Chapter 15 Sandstone Acidizing Design Introduction Acid Selection Acid Volume and Injection Rate Competing Factors Influencing Treatment Design Sandstone Acidizing Models Monitoring the Acidizing Process, the Optimal Rate Schedule Fluid Placement and Diversion Mechanical Acid Placement Ball Sealers Particulate Diverting Agents Viscous Diversion Preflush and Postflush Design The HC1 Preflush The Postflush Acid Additives Acidizing Treatment Operations 512 References 513 Problems 516 Chapter 16 Carbonate Acidizing Design Introduction Wormhole Formation and Growth Wormhole Propagation Models The Volumetric Model The Buijse-Glasbergen Model The Furui et al. Model Matrix Acidizing Design for Carbonates Acid Type and Concentration 535

9 xii Contents Acid Volume and Injection Rate Monitoring the Acidizing Process Fluid Diversion in Carbonates Acid Fracturing Acid Penetration in Fractures Acid Fracture Conductivity Productivity of an Acid-Fractured Well Comparison of Propped and Acid Fracture Performance Acidizing of Horizontal Wells 554 References 555 Problems 558 Chapter 17 Hydraulic Fracturing for Well Stimulation Introduction Length, Conductivity, and Equivalent Skin Effect Optimal Fracture Geometry for Maximizing the Fractured Well Productivity Unified Fracture Design Fractured Well Behavior in Conventional Low-Permeability Reservoirs Infinite Fracture Conductivity Performance Finite Fracture Conductivity Performance The Effect of Non-Darcy Flow on Fractured Well Performance Fractured Well Performance for Unconventional Tight Sand or Shale Reservoirs Tight Gas Sands Shale Choke Effect for Transverse Hydraulic Fractures 592 References 594 Problems 597 Chapter 18 The Design and Execution of Hydraulic Fracturing Treatments Introduction The Fracturing of Reservoir Rock In-Situ Stresses Breakdown Pressure Fracture Direction 606

10 Contents xiii 18.3 Fracture Geometry Hydraulic Fracture Width with the PKN Model Fracture Width with a Non-Newtonian Fluid Fracture Width with the KGD Model Fracture Width with the Radial Model Tip Screenout (TSO) Treatments Creating Complex Fracture Geometries The Created Fracture Geometry and Net Pressure Net Fracturing Pressure Height Migration Fluid Volume Requirements Proppant Schedule Propped Fracture Width Fracturing Fluids Rheological Properties Frictional Pressure Drop during Pumping Proppants and Fracture Conductivity Propped Fracture Conductivity Proppant Transport Fracture Diagnostics Fracturing Pressure Analysis Fracture Geometry Measurement Fracturing Horizontal Wells Fracture Orientation in Horizontal Well Fracturing Well Completions for Multiple Fracturing 65 2 References 655 Problems 657 Chapter 19 Sand Management Introduction Sand Flow Modeling Factors Affecting Formation Sand Production Sand Flow in the Wellbore Sand Management Sand Production Prevention Cavity Completion 677

11 xiv Contents 19.4 Sand Exclusion Gravel Pack Completion Frac-Pack Completion High-Performance Fracturing High-Performance Fractures in Deviated Production Wells Perforating Strategy for High-Performance 19.5 Completion Fractures 697 Failure Avoidance 698 References 699 Problems 702 Appendix A 703 Appendix B 705 Appendix C 709 Index 711