Energy analysis results

Nuclear power - the energy balance Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen Ceedata Consultancy email: storm@ceedata.nl www.stormsmith.nl Note In this document the references are coded by Q-numbers (e.g. Q6). Each reference has a unique number in this coding system, which is consistently used throughout all publications by the author. In the list at the back of the document the references are sorted by Q-number. The resulting sequence is not necessarily the same order in which the references appear in the text. January 2008 Energy analysis results Contents G Outline of the energy analysis G2 System parameters with a fixed value G3 Energy inputs of the first core G4 Energy inputs of one reload charge G5 Lifetime parameters G6 Energy cliff, CO 2 trap and energy debt References

G Outline of the energy analysis The energy inputs and the net energy production of the nuclear system, as defined in Part B, are calculated as function of three variables: ore grade, ore quality and operational lifetime of the reactor. For reason of the complex structure of the nuclear fuel chain the calculations are summarized in a sequence of tables, keeping the analysis transparent. The results of the calculations are grouped in order of increasing degree of dependecy on above mentioned three variables. The structure of the energy analysis of this study and of this are illustrated in Figure G.1. LWR system U-balance methodology uranium process parameters B C D E construction decommissioning dismantling F energy input fuel chain, soft + hard ores first core, reload charges, last core G energy debt full nuclear system: lifetime energy input lifetime CO 2 production uranium resources D lifetime net energy production energy cliff and CO 2 trap lifetime waste and materials H scenarios energy cliff and CO trap over time 2 net energy potential uranium resources Figure G.1 Structure of the energy analysis in this study. The results are presented in this part G. The light yellow icons with a capital refer to other Parts of this report. Energy inputs of the nuclear process chain The energy inputs of the processes constituting the nuclear system they are arranged in groups (see Figure G.2), according to their variability or degree of certainty. E m+m E m+m is the energy input of the uranium extraction: the mining + milling processes (nrs 4a and 4b in Figure G.2). E m+m strongy depends on the ore grade and other physical parameters. Due to its exponential rise with decreasing ore grade, this energy input may be of major concern when the nuclear system has to be fed by poor uranium ores. 2

E m+m = E mining + E milling eq G.1 E front E front is the energy input of the three processes needed to fabricate nuclear fuel for the reactor from the natural uranium, as delivered by the mining industry. This group comprises conversion, enrichment and fuel element fabrication, nrs 3, 2 and 1 in the chain of Figure G.2 The energy input per Mg enriched uranium of this group is a constant factor in the energy balance of the reference nuclear system. E front = E conv + E enrich + E fuel eq G.2 LWR once-through prcocesses and radioactive mass flows uranium ore 4a mining overburden + waste = biosphere = process = radioactive mass flow 4b milling mill tailings 3 conversion depleted uranium 2 enrichment 1 fuel element fabrication operational waste 0 construction 0 nuclear power plant decomm. & reconversion spent fuel 5 6 dismantling 9 int. storage 12 reclamation mining area 7a 7b 7c 10 waste packaging waste packaging waste packaging spent fuel packaging 8a sequestration 8b sequestration 8c sequestration 11 spent fuel sequestration Storm geologic repository geologic repository green fields Figure G.2 The nuclear process chain has three main parts: front end (upstream part), reactor and the back end (downstream part). The main parts contain groups, each consisting of 1-3 processes. The processes are numbered for this analysis (see also Part E of this report). The chain ends with the safe isolation of all nuclear waste from the biosphere.

E omr E omr is the energy needed to operate and maintain the nuclear power plant, including the energy input of the major refurbishments required to keep the reactor safe and up to date (see also Part F5). In this study E omr is assumed to have a constant value per reload period D, which has been introduced in Part C2. E con E con is the energy input of the construction of the nuclear power plant, see Part F4. This amount of energy is part of the energy debt, which has been introduced in Part C4 and which will be discussed in more detail in 6. The construction energy is assumed to be balanced with the energy production of the reactor. E waste E waste is the energy required to pack and sequester the radioactive operational waste from the processes of the front end of the chain (see also Part E2). For a given amount of prepared nuclear fuel this energy input has a fixed value. This group comprises three processes: reconversion of depleted uranium (nr 5 in Figure G.2), packing of the operational waste including reconverted depleted uranium (processes nrs 7a + 7b) and the definitive sequestration of the waste in a safe geological repository (processes nrs 8a + 8b). In Figure G.2 the reconversion of depleted uranium and the disposal of it has been kept separated, because these processes are not practiced up until today. In fact the energy input related to depleted uranium contributes to the energy debt (see 6). Of all waste handling processes, only the packing of the operational waste, process 7b, is actually current practice in the nuclear industry. E waste = E reconv + E pack + E seques eq G.3 E spent E spent is the energy required to handle spent fuel: for interim storage (nr 10), packing (nr 11) and definitive sequestration (nr 12) in a safe geological repository. None of these processes are operational today, so the value of this energy input has to be estimated and consequently has a large margin of uncertainty. E spent has a fixed value for a given amount of spent fuel. E spent = E interim + E pack + E seques eq G.4 E dism E dism is the energy required for decommissioning and dismantling the nuclear reactor after final shutdown (process 6 in Figure G.2) plus packaging and sequestration of the radioactive parts of the nuclear power plant (processes 7c + 8c). In Part F6 this chain of processes is called the reactor-to-grave sequence. The dismantling waste is assumed to be packed in similar containers like operational waste and to be sequestered in the geologic repository along with the operational waste. E dism = E decom + E dismantl + E pack + E seques eq G.5 In this study a fixed value of E dism is assumed, independent on the operational lifetime. For more details see Part F6. In the following calculations the energy requirements for construction and the reactorto-grave sequence are added to E c+d :

E c+d = E con + E dism eq G.6 The sum E c+d is called the energy debt in previous parts of this study. As it happens to be, more unavoidable processes related to the generation of nuclear power are being postponed to an unspecified future. For that reason the concept of the energy debt is more complicated than introduced in Part C4 and therefore will be discussed in more detail in 6. E reclam E reclam is the energy required for the reclamation of the uranium mine area (see also Part E2). This energy inputs depends on the ore grade of the uranium ore being mined, in addition to other factors, such as the depth and geology of the deposit. Figure G.3 gives an overview of the energy inputs as described above. E m+m mining + milling E front front E con construction E omr o+m+r Storm E waste operational waste E dism decomm. & dismantling E spent spent fuel Energy inputs of the nuclear system E reclam reclamation mine Figure G.3 The energy inputs of the nuclear process chain. This diagram is a summary of Figure G.2. For explanation of the energy inputs: see text. Table G.1 summarizes some remarks with respect to the values of the energy inputs. 5

Table G.1 Remarks with regard to the energy inputs of the nuclear system description energy input symbol value remarks uranium extraction E m+m small at high grades depends on ore grade, gets preponderant at very low grades fixed per Mg uranium to fuel E front fuel well known operation, maintenance and refurbishments E omr large may increase over time construction of the nuclear power plant E con very large large uncertainty range packing and sequestration of operational waste decommissioning and dismantling of the nuclear power plant spent fuel interim storage, packing, sequestration E waste E dism E spent fixed per Mg fuel likely very large large, fixed per Mg fuel mine reclamation E reclam small at high grades uncertain, lack of empirical data uncertain, lack of empirical data uncertain, lack of empirical data depends on ore grade Modelling the energy input of the nuclear system first core m fc = 81.20 Mg fresh fuel reload last reload charge m charge rel = 20.30 Mg m rel = 20.30 Mg 1 n 1 startup final shutdown 1 2 3 i n 2 n 1 n operational time number of reload periods D Storm spent fuel m spent = 20.30 Mg last core m lc = 81.20 Mg Figure G.4 Uranium mass flow through the nuclear reactor during its operational lifetime of n reload periods: first core, (n 1) reload charges and last core. In this study the operational lifetime of the reactor has been is taken as the number of reload periods D. During each reload period the reactor consumes a fixed amount of

nuclear fuel (one reload charge = 1/4 of the core mass) and produces a fixed amount of electricity, as has been pointed out in Part B2. The reactors starts up with a full core of fresh fuel: the first core. At the end of the first reload period 1/4 of the core mass is removed from the core as spent fuel and replaced by one reload charge of fresh fuel. During the subsequent reload periods one charge of spent fuel and replaced by a fresh one. After closedown of the reactor the full core has to be removed as spent fuel: de last core. The mass flow of enriched uranium during the operational lifetime of the reactor is illustrated by Figure G.4. The lifetime uranium requirements of the reactor during a life of n reload periods can be calculated by equations G.7 and G.8 (identical to equations B.10 and B.11 in Part B4). All masses are measured in Mg. Natural uranium: m life (U nat )= m 3 (fc) + (n-1) m 3 (rel) = 503.6 + (n-1) 162.35 Mg U nat eq G.7 Enriched uranium: m life (U enr ) = m 0 (fc) + (n-1) m 0 (rel) = 81.20 + (n-1) 20.30 Mg U enr eq G.8 Here is: m life = lifetime uranium consumption (natural in eq G.7, or enriched in eq G.8) m 3 (fc) = mass of natural uranium leaving the mill for the first core m 3 (rel) = mass of natural uranium leaving the mill for one reload charge m 0 (fc) = mass of enriched uranium in the first core m 0 (rel) = mass of enriched uranium in one reload charge n = number of reload periods during the operational lifetime of the reactor first core fresh fuel E fresh (fc) reload charge i reload charge i = n 1 E fresh (rel) E fresh (rel) E fixed E fixed E fixed 1 2 i n 1 n Storm E spent (rel) E spent (rel) E spent (lc) spent fuel last core Figure G.5 The energy inputs of the fuel chain during the operational lifetime of the reactor are indicated in the light blue boxes. For explanation: see text. 7

The energy input of the nuclear system is calculated per reload period, as illustrated by Figure G.5. During each reload period the reactor system consumes a fixed amount of energy for operation, maintenance and refurbishments (O+M+R) and to discharge the energy debt of the system: the energy input of construction and dismantling (see equation G.6). In this study we assume the energy debt to be redeemed over the lifetime of the system. So the energy input of the reactor per reload period D, E fixed (D), has a fixed value, only dependent on the operational lifetime (number of reload periods n): eq G.9 In addition to these fixed system inputs there are the variable energy inputs of the nuclear fuel chain. To keep the calculations transparent and flexible the energy inputs of the processes of the chain are arranged in two groups: E fresh, the enery needed to produce fresh nuclear fuel from uranium ore, including the sequestration of all radioactive waste generated during that production. E spent, the energy required to isolate the spent fuel from the biosphere. The energy input E fresh (fc) of the first core is: E fresh (fc) = E m+m (fc) + E front (fc) + E waste (fc) + E reclam (fc) eq G.10 The energy input E fresh (rel) of one reload charge is: E fresh (rel) = E m+m (rel) + E front (rel) + E waste (rel) + E reclam (rel) eq G.11 The energy input of the handling of the spent fuel of one reload charge is: E spent (rel) = E interim (rel) + E pack (rel) + E seques (rel) eq G.12 The energy input of the handling of the spent fuel of last core is: E spent (lc) = 4 E spent (rel) eq G.13 The energy input of the fuel chain for the first reload period is: E 1 = E fresh (fc) + E spent (rel) eq G.14 The energy input of the fuel chain for each of the following reload periods i = 2 through i = n 1 is: E i = E fresh (rel) + E spent (rel) eq G.15 The energy input of the fuel chain for the last (n th ) reload period is. E n = E fresh (rel) + E spent (lc) eq G.16 The lifetime energy input of a nuclear system with an operational lifetime of n reload periods can be calculated by equation G.17: 8

E input (life) = n E fixed + E 1 + (n 2) E i + E n = = n E omr + E c+d + E fresh (fc) + E spent (rel) + + (n 2) (E fresh (rel) + E spent (rel)) + E fresh (rel) + E spent (lc) = = n E omr + E c+d + E fresh (fc) + (n 1) E fresh (rel) + (n+3) E spent (rel) eq G.17 The gross lifetime energy output of the nuclear power plant, delivered to the distribution grid, E grid (life), is: E grid (life) = n E grid (D) = n 25.86 PJ = n 7.183 10 9 kwh eq G.18 Simplification The calculations can be greatly simplified if we assume the reactor consuming n reload charges during an operational life of n reload periods, effectively ignoring the first core and the last core. So, one reload charge is the unit of account in the energy calculations of the nuclear system, as illustrated by Figure G.6. E fresh (rel) reload charge i fresh fuel E fixed i E grid Storm E spent (rel) spent fuel Figure G.6 The energy inputs and the energy output of the nuclear system is the n-fold of those of one reload charge in this simplified approach. E grid is the amount of electricity delivered to the grid by the nuclear power plant during one reload period (see equation G.18). Based on the simplified approach, equation G.17 can be rewritten as: E input (life) = n E omr + E c+d + n E fresh (rel) + n E spent (rel) = = n (E omr + E fresh (rel) + E spent (rel)) + E c+d = = n (E chain (rel)) + E c+d eq G.19 Equation G.19 gives a value a few percent lower than equation G.17. The difference depends on the lifetime, ore grade and quality. Consequently the calculated net output of the nuclear system will be an equal fraction high. Considering the large uncertainty range in the value of the energy debt (±40%) and the significant spread in the values of the other data used, a neglect of 4% or less seems justified. 9

G2 System parameters with a fixed value This section sumarizes the parameters of the nuclear system which do not depend on the methodology of the nergy analysis of the nuclear system nor on the energy quality of the uranium ores feeding the system. Table G.2 Secondary parameters of the reference reactor, see also Table B.3. The masses of the natural uranium and enriched uranium consumed during the lifetime of the reactor are calculated according to the equations G.7 and G.8. Quantity (lifetime) unit Operational lifetime = years x average load factor 30x0.82 35x0.85 40x0.85 n = number of reload periods D D 30 36.28 41.46 Lifetime mass of natural uranium Mg 5212 6231 7073 Average mass U natural per reload Mg/D 173.74 171.76 170.59 Average mass U enriched per reload Mg/D 22.33 21.98 21.77 Lifetime heat production PJ 2424.3 2931.8 3350.7 Lifetime heat production 10 9 kwh 673.5 814.4 930.7 Heat production, per Mg U nat TJ/Mg 465.2 470.5 473.7 Heat production, per Mg U enriched TJ/Mg 3618.9 3676.7 3711.9 Lifetime gross electricity production PJ 775.8 938.2 1072.2 Lifetime gross electricity production 10 9 kwh 215.5 260.6 297.8 Gross electric. production per Mg U nat TJ/Mg 148.9 150.6 151.6 Gross electric. production per Mg U nat MWh/Mg 41.35 41.82 42.10 Natural uranium consumption g/kwh(e) 0.0242 0.0239 0.0238 Total mass enriched uranium Mg 669.90 797.39 902.61 Table G.3 Gross energy production per reload period D billion kwh/d Heat production Eth 80.81 22.45 Electricity production Ee 25.86 7.183 Table G.4 Energy requirements and CO 2 production of the operation, maintenance and refurbishments of the reactor per reload period D, averaged over its lifetime (see also Part F5). process E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D g CO 2 / kwh reactor oper+maint+refurb 2.820 2.334 0.486 175.03 24.37 10

Table G.5 Energy for construction and dismantling, E c+d : the energy debt and the CO 2 debt, mean values and spread E th + E e PJ E th PJ E e PJ m(co 2 ) Tg Energy input construction, mean 80 66.2 13.8 5.0 Energy input decommissioning and dismantling, mean 120 99.3 20.7 7.5 Energy debt, mean 200 165.5 34.5 12.5 Construction, spread 40 120 33.1 99.3 6.9 20.7 2.5 7.5 Decommissioning and dismantling, spread 80 160 66.2 132.4 13.8 27.6 5.0 10.0 Energy debt, spread 120 280 99.3 231.7 20.7 48.3 7.5 17.5 11

G3 Energy inputs of the first core The figures in Tables G.6 and G.7 are calculated from Tables E.3 and E.4, those in Table G.8 from Table E.40, the figures of Table G.9 from Tables E.41 and E.42 in combination with the uranium mass balance, Figure E.2 and Table E.1 (see Part E). Uranium extraction: mining + milling Table G.6 Data of the extraction of m 3 = 503.6 Mg of uranium from soft ores, the amount of natural uranium needed to produce the first core. The figures are based on the empirical recovery yield curve (see Figures D.5 and E.3). Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 PJ E th PJ E e PJ m(co 2 ) Gg CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 0.0140 0.0123 0.0016 0.93 0.13 1 0.1413 0.1247 0.0166 9.35 1.30 0.5 0.2845 0.2511 0.0335 18.8 2.62 0.15 0.9918 0.8751 0.1167 65.6 9.14 0.10 1.526 1.346 0.180 101 14.1 0.06 2.647 2.335 0.311 175 24.4 0.05 3.259 2.875 0.383 216 30.0 0.04 4.197 3.703 0.494 278 38.7 0.03 5.957 5.256 0.701 394 54.9 0.02 9.892 8.728 1.164 655 91.1 0.013 22.570 19.915 2.655 1494 208 Table G.7 Data of the extraction of m 3 = 503.6 Mg of uranium from hard ores, the amount of natural uranium needed to produce the first core. The figures are based on the empirical recovery yield curve (see Figures D.5 and E.3). Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 PJ E th PJ E e PJ m(co 2 ) Gg CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 0.0333 0.0205 0.0128 1.54 0.214 1 0.336 0.207 0.129 15.51 2.16 0.5 0.677 0.416 0.260 31.2 4.35 0.15 2.359 1.451 0.907 109 15.2 0.10 3.628 2.233 1.396 168 23.3 0.06 6.295 3.874 2.421 291 40.4 0.05 7.750 4.769 2.981 358 49.8 0.04 9.980 6.142 3.839 461 64.1 0.03 14.166 8.717 5.448 654 91.0 0.02 23.525 14,477 9.048 1086 151 0.013 53.676 33.031 20.645 2477 345 12

Mine reclamation Table G.8 Reclamation of the mine after the extraction of m 3 = 503.6 Mg of uranium, the amount of natural uranium needed to produce the first core. The figures are based on the empirical recovery yield curve (see Figures D.5 and E.3). tailings Grade, G Gg % U 3 O 8 E th + E e PJ E th PJ E e PJ m(co 2 ) Gg CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 5.41 0.023 0.020 0.003 1.51 0.21 1 60.0 0.252 0.224 0.028 16.8 2.34 0.5 122 0.510 0.454 0.057 34.0 4.74 0.15 425 1.785 1.587 0.198 119 16.6 0.10 654 2.747 2.442 0.305 183 25.6 0.06 1135 4.768 4.238 0.530 318 44.2 0.05 1398 5.870 5.218 0.652 391 54.5 0.04 1800 7.561 6.721 0.840 504 70.2 0.03 2555 10.732 9.540 1.192 715 99.6 0.02 4244 17.825 15.844 1.981 1188 165 0.013 9684 40.673 36.154 4.519 2712 378 Remaining processes of the chain Table G.9 Energy requirements and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain of the first core, excluding mining + milling and mine reclamation. These energy inputs are independent of ore grade, ore type (hard or soft) and operational lifetime of the reactor. process E th + E e PJ E th PJ E e PJ m(co 2 ) Gg g CO 2 / kwh (1) mining + milling (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) conversion 0.7443 0.7177 0,0266 53.83 7.49 enrichment 2.2785 0.7696 1.5089 57.72 8.03 fuel element fabrication 0.3119 0.2221 0.0889 16.66 2.32 sum front end excl m+m 3.3338 1.7094 1.6244 128.21 17.85 depleted U reconversion 0.6197 0.5975 0.0221 44.82 6.24 packaging oper waste + U depl 0.5493 0.4546 0.0947 34.10 4.75 sequestr. oper waste + U depl 0.5533 0.4330 0.1203 32.48 4.52 Sum operational waste 1.7223 1.4852 0.2371 111.39 15.51 spent fuel interim storage 0.2680 0.2218 0.0562 16.63 2.32 spent fuel conditioning 0.1624 0.1344 0.0280 10.08 1.40 spent fuel sequestration 2.1274 1.5017 0.6257 112.63 15.68 sum spent fuel 2.5578 1.8579 0.7099 139.34 19.40 reclamation mine (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) sum back end excl reclam 4.2801 3.3430 0.9370 250.73 34.90 total chain excl m+m & recl 7.6139 5.0525 2.5614 378.94 52.75 13

(1) Energy production during the first reload period (2) Ore grade-dependent, see Tables G.6 and G.7 (3) Ore grade-dependent, see Table G.8 E fresh (fc) E fresh (fc) = E m+m (fc) + E front (fc) + E waste (fc) + E reclam (fc) eq G.10 Table G.10 gives the energy input E fresh (fc) according to equation G.10 as function of the ore grade if the uranium is extracted from soft ores and Table G.11 idem from hard ores. Table G.10 Energy requirements E fresh (fc) and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain to produce the first core from soft ores Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e PJ E th PJ E e PJ m(co 2 ) Gg CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 5.098 3.227 1.866 242.04 33.7 1 5.450 3.543 1.906 265.76 37.0 0.5 5.851 3.899 1.952 292.45 40.7 0.15 7.833 5.656 2.176 424.22 59.1 0.10 9.329 6.983 2.346 523.71 72.9 0.06 12.470 9.768 2.703 732.59 102.0 0.05 14.185 11.288 2.897 846.58 117.9 0.04 16.813 13.618 3.195 1021.36 142.2 0.03 21.745 17.990 3.195 1349.27 187.8 0.02 32.773 27.767 5.006 2082.56 289.9 0.013 68.299 59.263 9.036 4444.73 618.8 Table G.11 Energy requirements E fresh (fc) and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain to produce the first core from hard ores Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e PJ E th PJ E e PJ m(co 2 ) Gg CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 5.112 3.235 1.877 242.65 33.8 1 5.644 3.626 2.019 271.92 37.9 0.5 6.243 4.065 2.178 304.85 42.4 0.15 9.200 6.233 2.967 467.45 65.1 0.10 11.432 7.869 3.562 590.21 82.2 0.06 16.118 11.306 4.812 847.95 118.0 0.05 18.676 13.181 5.494 9.88.61 137.6 0.04 22.597 16.057 6.540 1204.28 167.7 0.03 29.954 21.452 8.502 1608.89 224.0 0.02 46.406 33.516 12.890 2513.71 349.9 0.013 99.405 72.380 27.025 5428.47 755.7 14

G4 Energy inputs of one reload charge Uranium extraction: mining + milling The figures of Table G.12 are found by multiplying the values of Table E.3 x 162.35. The figures of Table G.13 are the values of Table E.4 x 162.35. These figures are based on the empirical recovery yield curve (see Figures D.5 and E.3). The CO 2 emission taken on the gross electricity production of the reference reactor, per reload period. Table G.12 Data of the extraction of m 3 = 162.35 Mg of uranium from soft ores, the amount of natural uranium needed to produce one reload charge. Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 0.00451 0.00398 0.00053 0.298 0.042 1 0.0456 0.0402 0.00536 3.015 0.420 0.5 0.0917 0.0809 0.0108 6.070 0.845 0.15 0.320 0.282 0.0376 21.16 2.95 0.10 0.492 0.434 0.0579 32.55 4.53 0.06 0.853 0.753 0.100 56.47 7.86 0.05 1.050 0.927 0.124 69.52 9.68 0.04 1.353 1.194 0.159 89.53 12.5 0.03 1.920 1.694 0.226 127.07 17.7 0.02 3.189 2.815 0.375 211.03 29.4 0.013 7.276 6.420 0.856 481.50 67.0 Table G.13 Data of the extraction of m 3 = 162.35 Mg of uranium from hard ores, the amount of natural uranium needed to produce one reload charge. Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 0.0107 0.0066 0.00413 0.495 0.069 1 0.1083 0.0667 0.0417 5.000 0.696 0.5 0.218 0.134 0.084 10.07 1.40 0.15 0.760 0.468 0.292 35.09 4.89 0.10 1.170 0.720 0.450 53.99 7.52 0.06 2.029 1.249 0.780 93.66 13.04 0.05 2.498 1.537 0.961 115.30 16.05 0.04 3.217 1.980 1.237 148.5 20.7 0.03 4.567 2.810 1.756 210.8 29.3 0.02 7.584 4.667 2.917 350.0 48.7 0.013 17.304 10.648 6.655 798.6 111.2 15

Mine reclamation The figures of Table G.14 are found by multiplying the values of Table E.40 times 162.35, the mass of natural uranium needed to produce one reload charge. Table G.14 Reclamation of the mine after the extraction of m 3 = 162.35 Mg of uranium, the amount of natural uranium needed to produce one reload charge. Grade, G tailings % U 3 O 8 Gg/D E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 1.7 0.0073 0.0065 0.0008 0.488 0.068 1 19.4 0.081 0.072 0.009 5.42 0.75 0.5 39.2 0.165 0.146 0.018 11.0 1.53 0.15 137 0.575 0.511 0.064 38.4 5.34 0.10 211 0.886 0.787 0.098 59.0 8.33 0.06 366 1.537 1.366 0.171 102 14.3 0.05 451 1.892 1.682 0.210 126 17.6 0.04 580 2.437 2.167 0.271 162 22.6 0.03 824 3.460 3.075 0.384 231 32.1 0.02 1368 5.746 5.108 0.638 383 53.3 0.013 3122 13.11 11.65 1.46 874 122 Uranium extraction + mine reclamation Table G.15 lists the sums of the energy inputs of mining and milling, E m+m+r (rel) (see equation G.23), from soft ores and mine reclamation at various ore grades, found by adding the figures of Tables G.12 and G.14. Table G.16 gives the equivalent figures for hard ores: the addition of Tables G.13 and G.14. Table G.15 Mining + milling + reclamation of the mine, E m+m+r (rel), for the extraction of m 3 = 162.35 Mg of natural uranium from soft ores, needed to produce one reload charge. Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 0.0118 0.010 0.0013 0.787 0.110 1 0.1269 0.112 0.014 8.435 1.17 0.5 0.256 0.227 0.029 17.04 2.37 0.15 0.895 0.794 0.102 59.52 8.29 0.10 1.377 1.221 0.156 91.59 12.8 0.06 2.390 2.119 0.271 158.9 22.1 0.05 2.943 2.609 0.334 195.7 27.2 0.04 3.790 3.360 0.430 252.0 35.1 0.03 5.380 4.770 0.610 357.7 49.8 0.02 8.935 7.922 1.014 594.1 82.7 0.013 20.39 18.07 2.313 1356 189 16

Table G.16 Mining + milling + reclamation of the mine, E m+m+r (rel), for the extraction of m 3 = 162.35 Mg of natural uranium, E U (rel), from hard ores, needed to produce one reload charge. Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 0.0180 0.013 0.0049 0.983 0.14 1 0.1896 0.139 0.051 10.42 1.45 0.5 0.383 0.280 0.102 21.03 2.93 0.15 1.336 0.979 0.356 73.45 10.2 0.10 2.055 1.507 0.548 113.0 15.7 0.06 3.566 2.615 0.951 196.1 27.3 0.05 4.391 3.219 1.171 241.5 33.6 0.04 5.655 4.146 1.508 311.0 43.3 0.03 8.026 5.886 2.141 441.5 61.5 0.02 13.33 9.775 3.555 733.1 102 0.013 30.42 22.30 8.112 1673 233 Remaining processes of the chain Table G.17 Energy requirements and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain to produce one reload charge, excluding mining + milling and mine reclamation. These energy inputs are independent of ore grade, ore type (hard or soft) and operational lifetime of the reactor. The numbers of the processes refer to the nuclear process chain in Figure G.2. nr process E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D emission gco 2 / kwh 4 mining + milling (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) 3 conversion 0.2399 0.2314 0.0086 17.35 2.42 2 enrichment 0.8026 0.2711 0.5315 20.33 2.83 1 fuel element fabrication 0.0777 0.0555 0.0222 4.17 0.58 sum front end excl m+m 1.1203 0.5580 0.5623 41.85 5.83 5 depleted U reconversion 0.2086 0.2011 00074 15.09 2.10 7 packaging oper waste + U depl 0.2572 0.2129 0.0443 15.97 2.22 8 sequestration oper waste + U depl 0.2591 0.2027 0.0563 15.21 2.12 sum operational waste 0.7249 0.6168 0.1081 46.26 6.44 9 spent fuel interim storage 0.0670 0.0554 0.0116 4.16 0.58 10 spent fuel conditioning 0.0406 0.0336 0.0070 2.52 0.35 11 spent fuel sequestration 0.5319 0.3754 0.1564 28.16 3.92 sum spent fuel 0.6395 0.4645 0.1750 34.84 4.45 12 reclamation mine (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) sum back end excl reclam 1.3643 1.0812 0.2831 81.09 11.29 total chain excl m+m & recl 2.4846 1.6392 0.8454 122.94 17.11 (1) Ore grade-dependent, see Tables G.12 and G.13 (2) Ore grade-dependent, see Table G.14 17

The figures of Table G.17 are calculated from Tables E.41, E.42 and E.43 in combination with the uranium mass balance, Figure E.2 and Table E.1 (see Part E). E fresh (rel) E fresh (rel) = E m+m (rel) + E front (rel) + E waste (rel) + E reclam (rel) eq G.11 Table G.18 gives the energy input E fresh (rel) according to equation G.11 as function of the ore grade if the uranium is extracted from soft ores and Table G.19 idem from hard ores. Table G.18 Energy requirements E fresh (rel) and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain to produce one reload charge from soft ores Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 1.857 1.185 0.672 88.90 12.38 1 1.972 1.287 0.685 96.54 13.44 0.5 3.101 1.402 0.699 105.15 14.64 0.15 2.740 1.968 0.772 147.63 20.56 0.10 3.223 2.396 0.827 179.70 25.02 0.06 4.235 3.294 0.942 247.04 34.39 0.05 4.788 3.784 1.004 283.78 39.51 0.04 5.635 4.535 1.100 340.13 47.35 0.03 7.225 5.944 1.281 445.84 62.07 0.02 10.780 9.096 1.684 682.23 94.98 0.013 22.233 19.250 2.983 1443.72 200.99 Table G.19 Energy requirements E fresh (rel) and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain to produce one reload charge from hard ores Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 1.863 1.188 0.675 89.09 12.41 1 2.035 1.314 0.721 98.53 13.72 0.5 2.228 1.455 0.773 109.14 15.30 0.15 3.181 2.154 1.027 161.56 22.50 0.10 3.901 2.682 1.219 201.14 28.00 0.06 5.411 3.790 1.622 284.23 39.57 0.05 6.236 4.394 1.842 329.57 45.88 0.04 7.500 5.321 2.179 399.10 55.56 0.03 9.872 7.060 2.811 529.53 73.72 0.02 15.175 10.950 4.226 821.22 114.33 0.013 32.261 23.478 8.783 1760.86 245.14 18

Energy input of the full fuel chain of one reload charge As pointed out in section G1, the lifetime energy input of the nuclear system can be calculated, with a contingency of less than 4%, by multiplying the energy inputs of one reload charge by the number of reload periods (n) of the reactor during its operational lifetime. E chain (rel) = E omr + E fresh (rel) + E spent (rel) eq G.20 The combination of equation G.20 with eq G.11 gives equation G.21: E chain (rel) = E m+m (rel) + E reclam (rel) + E omr + E front (rel) + E waste (rel) + E spent (rel) eq G.21 The first two contributions are a function of the grade G of the uranium ore, the other four contributions have a fixed value per reload charge (be it with a considerable uncertainty range). So, equation G.21 can be simplified to eq G.22: E chain (rel) = E m+m+r (rel) + E fix (rel) eq G.22 With E m+m+r (rel) = E m+m (rel) + E reclam (rel) eq G.23 and: E fix (rel) = E omr + E front (rel) + E waste (rel) + E spent (rel) eq G.24 The values of E m+m+r (rel) as function of the ore grade G are summarized in Tables G.15 (soft ores) and G.16 (hard ores). In Table G.20 the value of E fix (rel) is presented as sum of its components. The energy inputs of the full fuel chain per reload charge, according to equation G.22 are given in Table G.21 for soft ores and in Table G.22 for hard ores. Table G.20 Summary of the fixed energy input of the nuclear chain, E fix (rel), and CO 2 emission per reload charge, excluding uranium extraction and mine reclamation. The quantities in this table are independent of the ore grade, ore type and the operational lifetime of the reactor. The mass of the natural uranium required to produce one reload charge is m 3 = 162.35 Mg. The 3d column is derived from Table G.17. part of the fuel chain symbol E th + E e E th + E e GJ/kg U nat emission gco 2 /kwh front end, excluding mining & milling E front 1.1203 6.900 5.83 depleted uranium 0.2375 1.463 2.34 operational waste 0.4874 3.002 4.10 sum operational waste E waste 0.7249 4.465 6.44 spent fuel E spent 0.6395 3.937 4.85 back end, excludng mine reclamation 1.3643 8.404 11.29 sum fuel chain excl mining + milling + recl 2.4846 15.304 17.11 o + m + r E omr 2.8200 17.370 24.37 total fixed energy input per reload E fix (rel) 5.3046 32.674 41.48 19

Table G.21 Energy requirements E chain (rel) and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain to produce one reload charge from soft ores, according to equation G.22. This table combines Tables G.15 and G.20. Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 5.316 3.983 1.333 298.8 41.6 1 5.431 4.085 1.346 306.4 42.7 0.5 5.561 4.200 1.361 315.0 43.9 0.15 6.200 4.767 1.433 357.5 48.8 0.10 6.682 5.194 1.488 389.6 54.2 0.06 7.695 6.092 1.603 456.9 63.6 0.05 8.247 6.582 1.665 493.7 68.7 0.04 9.095 7.333 1.762 550.0 76.6 0.03 10.685 8.743 1.942 655.7 91.3 0.02 14.240 11.895 2.345 892.1 124.2 0.013 25.692 22.048 3.644 1653.6 230.2 Table G.22 Energy requirements E chain (rel) and CO 2 production of the nuclear fuel chain to produce one reload charge from hard ores, according to equation G.22. This table combines Tables G.16 and G.20. Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 5.323 3.986 1.337 299.0 41.6 1 5.494 4.112 1.382 308.4 42.9 0.5 5.687 4.253 1.434 319.0 44.4 0.15 6.640 4.952 1.688 371.4 51.7 0.10 7.360 5.840 1.880 411.0 57.2 0.06 8.871 6.588 2.283 494.1 68.8 0.05 9.695 7.192 2.503 539.4 75.1 0.04 10.959 8.119 2.840 609.0 84.8 0.03 13.331 9.859 3.472 739.4 102.9 0.02 18.635 13.748 4.887 1031.1 143.5 0.013 35.720 26.276 9.444 1970.7 274.4 20

Net energy per reload charge E net (D) The net energy production during one reload period, E net (D), is defined as the gross electricity production of the nuclear power plant minus the energy input of the full fuel chain E chain (rel) of one reload charge, but excluding the energy debt from construction and dismantling. The gross energy production E grid (D) during one reload period D has a fixed value: E grid (D) = 25.86 = 7.183 10 9 kwh/d eq G.25 E net (D) = 25.86 E chain (rel) eq G.26 Table G.23 lists the net energy production of the nuclear system, E net (D), as function of the ore grade per reload period D and per Mg natural uranium from soft ores, and Table G.24 for hard ores. The quantities E chain (rel/kg) and E net (D/kg), are defined by equations G,27 and G.28 respectively. eq G.27 eq G.28 The relationship of the energy input of the full nuclear fuel chain E chain (rel/kg) and the ore grade G is illustrated by Figure G.7 for soft ores and hard ores. Values are listed in the third columns of Tables G.23 and G.24. Table G.23 Energy input, net energy and CO 2 emission of the nuclear fuel chain as function of the ore grade, per reload period D and per kg natural uranium. Uranium extracted from soft ores. Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E chain (rel) E chain (rel/kg) E net (D) E net (D/kg) Energy input full chain E th + E e Energy input full chain E th + E e GJ/kg U nat Net energy output full chain E th + E e Net energy output full chain E th + E e GJ/kg U nat CO 2 emission full chain g/kwh 10 5.316 32.7 20.54 126.5 41.6 1 5.432 33.5 20.43 125.8 42.7 0.5 5.561 34.3 20.30 125.0 43.9 0.15 6.200 38.2 19.66 121.1 49.8 0.10 6.682 41.2 19.18 118.1 54.2 0.06 7.695 47.4 18.17 111.9 63.6 0.05 8.274 50.8 17.61 108.5 68.7 0.04 9.095 56.0 16.77 103.3 76.6 0.03 10.685 65.8 15.18 93.5 91.3 0.02 14.240 87.7 11.62 71.6 124.2 0.013 25.692 158.3 0.17 1.0 230.2 21

Table G.24 Energy input, net energy and CO 2 emission of the nuclear fuel chain as function of the ore grade, per reload period D and per kg natural uranium. Uranium extracted from hard ores. E chain (rel) E chain (rel/kg) E net (D) E net (D/kg) Net energy Net energy Energy input Energy input CO output output 2 emission Grade, G full chain full chain full chain full chain % U 3 O 8 E th + E e E th + E e full chain E GJ/kg U th + E e E th + E e nat g/kwh GJ/kg U nat 10 5.323 32.8 20.54 126.5 41.6 1 5.494 33.8 20.37 125.4 42.9 0.5 5.687 35.0 20.17 124.3 44.4 0.15 6.640 40.9 19.22 118.4 51.7 0.10 7.360 45.3 18.50 114.0 57.2 0.06 8.871 54.6 16.99 104.6 68.8 0.05 9.695 59.7 16.16 99.6 75.1 0.04 10.959 67.5 14.90 91.8 84.8 0.03 13.331 82.1 12.53 77.2 102.9 0.02 18.635 114.8 7.23 44.5 143.5 0.013 35.720 220.0-9.86 60.7 274.4 200 hard ores soft ores 150 E chain (rel/kg) energy input full chain (GJ/kg U) 100 50 0 Storm 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 decreasing ore grade G (m-% U O ) 3 8 Figure G.7 The energy input of the nuclear fuel chain E chain (rel/kg) of one reload charge and reload period as function of the ore grade G, see equation G.27. The curves represent the figures from the third columns of Tables G.23 and G.24. 22

G5 Lifetime parameters Operational lifetime of the reactor The operational lifetime of the nuclear powerplant is determined by the lifetime of the nuclear reactor, which in turn is determined by the integrity of the reactor and the quality of its construction materials. Due to neutron radiation, the exposed materials deteriorate over time (neutron embrittlement). Other limiting factors are corrosion and incrustation by radioactive materials in the primary system. Not the age of the nuclear energy system measured in years is an important quantity, rather its lifetime useful energy production. This quantity can be quantified by the full-power year FPY. The unit FPY has been introduced in Part B3 and avoids ambiguities regarding age of the reactor in years and load factors. In fact an FPY corresponds with a fixed amount of electricity and is only related to the nominal power rating of the reactor. Therefore the FPY is applicable to all kinds of reactors, without knowing technical details of the reactor. A full-power year FPY is defined as the period in which a reactor, with a nominal power of P o GW e generates a fixed amount of electricity, equalling the amount if the reactor operated a full year continually at 100% of its nominal power of P o GW e. The amount of electricity produced in 1 FPY, J 100, is: J 100 <=> P o GW.year = P o 24 365 GWh = = P o 24 365 3600 GJ = P o 31.536 PJ/FPY eq G.29 As the reference reactor in this study has a nominal power of P o = 1 GW e, the amount of electricity corresponding with one FPY is: J 100 <=> 31.536 PJ = 8.760 10 9 kwh/fpy eq G.30 The operational lifetime T 100 of a given reactor can be calculated by equation G.31: eq G.31 The operational lifetime of the reference reactor in this study is expressed in reload period D, for reason of the fixed relationship between the reload period and the amount od uranium consumed. This relationship is explained in Part B3 and in Part G1. The reload period D of the reference reactor corresponds with a fixed amount of produced electricity: 1 D => 0.82 J 100 <=> 0.82 31.356 = 25.86 PJ = 7.183 10 9 kwh eq G.32 23

To illustrate the effect of the operational lifetime T 100 on the specific CO 2 emission and net energy production of nuclear power, we assessed 4 scenarios (see also Part B3): 1 low: T 100 = 20 years at an average load factor of 0.82 (16.4 FPY) 2 baseline: the reference reactor in this study: T 100 = 30 years at an average load factor of 0.82, (24.6 FPY) 3 ISA (as in ISA 2006 [Q325]: T 100 = 35 years at an average load factor of 0.85 (29.75 FPY) 4 Vattenfall (as in ExternE-UK 1998 [Q308] and Vattenfall 2005 [Q152]: T 100 = 40 years at an average load factor of 0.85 (34.0 FPY). The graph in Figure B.7 points to an average full-power time of about 22 FPY for plants aged 40 years. The graph in Figure B.6 shows a decreasing tendency of the mean load factor with the age of the nuclear power plants. A decreasing load factor might be expected as the construction materials of the reactor deteriorate over time. Maintenance gets increasingly difficult and time-consuming by the increasing radioactivity of the reactor and associated equipment. In October 2007 the average age of the 439 nuclear power plants in the world was 23 years. At an assumed average load factor of 0.85, the world average full-power time would be 19.6 FPY. The average age of the 117 permanently shutdown NPPs of the world was 22 years in October 2007 (Schneider & Froggatt 2007 [Q342]). The average operational lifetime of the 27 permanently shutdown commercial gascooled nuclear power stations in Great Britain is 18.78 FPY (see Part F Table F.20). Wether nuclear power plants in the future will reach a world average of 24.6 FPY (30 years at a mean load factor of 0.82, the baseline case of this study) remains to be proven. The existing evidence, as discussed above, may point to a lower value. The higher values of 29.75 FPY or even 34.0 FPY seem more remote. World Nuclear Association (www.world-nuclear.org) and Areva (www.areva-np.com) claim advanced reators to have operational lifetimes of 60 years, at an undisclosed load factor. If we assume an average load factor of L = 0.85, the advanced LWRs would have an operational lifetime of 51 FPY. No empirical data will exists during the next decades confirming that even one reactor could reach a 51 FPY operational lifetime. We did not include a scenario based on this lifetime. If needed, it can be easily calculated from the data and tables in this Part. 24

Construction and dismantling: E c+d and m(co 2 ) c+d The energy requirements of construction and dismantling have an assumed fixed value E c+d = 200 PJ (see Part F). This amount of energy has to be subtracted from the lifetime energy production of the nuclear system, in order to get a genuine energy balance of the system. This study takes an energy instalment into account, which equals the value of E c+d divided by the number of reload periods during the operational life of the reactor (see Table G.26). Similarly, the CO 2 emissions by the construction and dismantling activities, estimated at m(co 2 ) c+d = 12.5 Tg (see Part F), contribute to the lifetime CO 2 emission per kilowatt-hour delivered electricity. Table G.25 Energy input and CO 2 emission of the construction and dismantling of the nuclear power plant at 4 operational lifetimes. E c+d = 200 PJ. unit low baseline ISA Vattenfall lifetime, reload periods D 20 30 36.28 41.46 E c+d per reload period 10 6.667 5.513 4.428 lifetime consumption of U nat Mg 3588 5212 6231 7073 lifetime electricity production PJ 517.2 775.8 938.2 1072.2 lifetime electricity production 10 9 kwh 143.7 215.5 260.6 297.8 E c+d per kg natural uranium (1) GJ/kg 55.74 38.37 32.10 28.28 CO 2 production per reload period Gg/D 625 417 345 301 CO 2 production per kg U nat (2) Mg/kg 3.484 2.398 2.01 1,767 (1) See equation G.33 (2) See equation G.34 eq G.33 eq G.34 Table G.26 Thermal and electric energy input for construction and dismantling and CO 2 emission operational lifetime (reload periods D) E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D 1 200 165.5 34.5 12.5 CO 2 g/kwh 20 10 8.275 1.725 625 87.0 30 6.667 5.517 1.150 417 58.0 36.28 5.513 4.562 0.951 345 48.0 41.46 4.824 3.992 0.832 301 42.0 25

Lifetime energy input of the nuclear system The lifetime energy input of the nuclear system, E input (life), here is defined as the sum of the energy inputs into the nuclear system during its operational lifetime of n reload periods and its aftermath, according to equation G.19. As explained in section G1, this is an approximation, ignoring the additional energy input of the first core and last core. E input (life) = n (E chain (rel)) + E c+d eq G.19 Obviously E input (life) depends on the operational lifetime, the ore grade and the ore type. The ore grade-dependence is illustrated by Tables G.27 - G.30 in the baseline case (life: n = 30) for soft and hard ores respectively. Table G.27 Total system energy input E input (n=30/d) and CO 2 production per reload period D of the nuclear system, baseline case (30x0.82 years), according to equation G.35. Uranium from soft ores. Grade, G E th + E e % U 3 O 8 E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 11.983 9.500 2.482 715 100 1 12.098 9.602 2.495 723 101 0.5 12.228 9.717 2.510 732 102 0.15 12.867 10.284 2.582 774 108 0.10 13.349 10.711 2.637 806 112 0.06 14.362 11.609 2.752 874 122 0.05 14.914 12.099 2.814 910 127 0.04 15.762 12.850 2.911 967 135 0.03 17.352 14.260 3.091 1072 149 0.02 20.907 17.412 3.494 1309 182 0.013 32.359 27.565 4.793 2070 288 Table G.28 Total system energy input E input (n=30/kg) and CO 2 production per kg U nat of the nuclear system, baseline case (30x0.82 years), according to equation G.36. Uranium from soft ores. Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e GJ/kg E th GJ/kg E e GJ/kg m(co 2 ) Mg/kg 10 73.812 58.519 15.288 4.407 1 74.521 59.147 15.368 4.454 0.5 75.318 59.853 15.548 4.507 0.15 79.253 63.342 15.905 4.769 0.10 82.224 65.976 16.242 4.966 0.06 88.462 71.506 16.949 5.381 0.05 91.866 74.524 17.336 5.607 0.04 97.086 79.152 17.928 5.954 0.03 106.878 87.833 19.019 6.606 0.02 128.776 107.247 21.523 8.062 0.013 199.319 169.787 29.526 12.752 26

Equation G.19 can be rewritten as: eq G.35 The energy input per kg natural uranium averaged over the lifetime of the nuclear system can be found by equation G.36, in which the additional energy and mass input by the firstcore is ignored. eq G.36 Table G.29 Total system energy input E input (n=30/d) and CO 2 production per reload period D of the nuclear system, baseline case (30x0.82 years), according to equation G.35. Uranium from hard ores. Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e E th E e m(co 2 ) Gg/D CO 2 emission g/kwh 10 11.990 9,503 2.286 716 100 1 12.161 9.629 2.531 725 101 0.5 12.354 9.770 2.583 735 102 0.15 13.307 10.469 2.837 788 110 0.10 14.027 10.997 3.029 828 115 0.06 15.538 12.105 3.432 911 127 0.05 16.362 12.709 3.652 956 133 0.04 17.626 13.636 3.989 1026 143 0.03 19.998 15.376 4.621 1156 161 0.02 25.302 19.265 6.036 1448 202 0.013 42.387 31.793 10.593 2387 332 Table G.30 Total system energy input E input (n=30/kg) and CO 2 production per kg U nat of the nuclear system, baseline case (30x0.82 years), according to equation G.36. Uranium from hard ores. Grade, G % U 3 O 8 E th + E e GJ/kg E th GJ/kg E e GJ/kg m(co 2 ) Mg/kg 10 73.851 58.535 15.310 4.408 1 74.908 59.310 15.592 4.466 0.5 76.096 60.181 15.909 4.532 0.15 81.967 64.486 17.474 4.855 0.10 86.399 67.737 18.657 5.098 0.06 95.705 74.560 21.138 5.610 0.05 100.783 78.284 22.493 5.889 0.04 108.570 83.994 24.570 6.318 0.03 123.179 94.707 28.466 7.121 0.02 155.847 118.662 37.179 8.918 0.013 261.084 195.832 65.246 14.705 27

200 lifetime 30x0.82 FPY hard ores soft ores 150 E input (n=30/kg) energy input full system (GJ/kg U) 100 fuel chain + construction + dismantling 50 fuel chain 0 Storm 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 decreasing ore grade G (m-% U O ) 3 8 Figure G.8 The energy input of the full nuclear system E input (n=30/kg) per kg natural uranium consumed during the lifetime, as function of the ore grade G, see equation G.36. The higher curves represent the figures from the second columns of Tables G.28 and G.30, the lower curves represent the figures from the third columns of Tables G.23 and G.24. 28

Lifetime net energy output of the nuclear system The lifetime net energy production of the nuclear system, E net (life), here is defined as the gross electricity production minus the lifetime energy input. The gross electricity production, E grid (life), is defined as the total amount of electricity leaving the nuclear power plant and delivered to the distribution grid during the lifetime of the nuclear power plant. E net (life) = E grid (life) E input (life) eq G.38 Combination with equations G.18 and G.19 gives: E net (life) = n E grid (D) n (E chain (rel)) E c+d eq G.39 Combination with equation G.26 and substituting the fixed value of E c+d (see Table G.5) into equation G.39 give: E net (life) = n (25.86 E chain (rel)) 200 PJ eq G.40 The value found in petajoules PJ can be easily converted into kilowatt-hours kwh by equation G.41: 1 PJ = (1/3.6) 10 9 kwh eq G.41 Note that equation G.26 is an approximation resulting in a value of E net (D) 2-4% high, as pointed out in section G1, so the outcome of equation G.40 will be also slightly high. Table G.31 Net energy production E net (life) in petajoules PJ of the nuclear fuel chain at various operational lifetimes (number of reload periods), according to equation G.40. Uranium from soft ores. E Grade, G net (life) (PJ) % U 3 O low baseline ISA Vattenfall 8 20x0.82 30x0.82 35x0.85 40x0.85 10 211 416 545 652 1 209 413 541 647 0.5 206 409 537 642 0.15 193 390 513 615 0.10 184 375 496 595 0.06 163 345 459 553 0.05 152 328 439 530 0.04 135 303 408 495 0.03 104 255 351 429 0.02 32 149 222 282 0.013-197 -195-194 -193 29

800 1% U 3O 8 600 world average operational lifetime 2008 0.1% U 3O 8 0.05% U 3O 8 soft ores E net (life) (PJ) cumulative net energy production 400 0.03% U 3O 8 0.02% U O 3 8 200 baseline this study ISA Vattenfall WNA, Areva 0 10 20 operational lifetime 30 40 50 full-power years 200 Figure G.9 The cumulative net energy production of the nuclear system as function of the operational lifetime, measured in full-power years. For explanation: see text. Uranium extracted from soft ores at five different ore grades. The yellow strip indicates the estimated average operational lifetime of the world nuclear fleet at the start of 2008. 800 1% U 3O 8 600 E net (life) (PJ) 400 cumulative net energy production world average operational lifetime 2008 0.1% U 3O 8 0.05% U 3O 8 0.03% U 3O 8 hard ores 200 baseline this study ISA Vattenfall 0.02% U O 3 8 WNA, Areva 0 10 20 operational lifetime 30 40 50 full-power years 200 Figure G.10 The cumulative net energy production of the nuclear system as function of the operational lifetime, measured in full-power years. For explanation: see text. Uranium extracted from hard ores at five different ore grades. The yellow strip indicates the estimated average operational lifetime of the world nuclear fleet at the start of 2008. 30

Table G.32 Net energy production E net (life) in petajoules PJ of the nuclear fuel chain at various operational lifetimes (number of reload periods), according to equation G.40. Uranium from hard ores. E Grade, G net (life) (PJ) % U 3 O low baseline ISA Vattenfall 8 20x0.82 30x0.82 35x0.85 40x0.85 10 211 416 545 652 1 207 411 539 644 0.5 204 405 532 636 0.15 184 377 497 597 0.10 170 355 471 567 0.06 140 310 416 504 0.05 123 285 387 470 0.04 98 247 341 418 0.03 51 176 255 319 0.02-56 17 62 100 0.013-397 -496-558 -609 31