SUB Hamburg A/534446 Water Quality Management for Coastal Aquaculture By Sukumar Bandyopadhyay Former Professor and Emeritus Fellow Indian institute of Technology Kharagpur 2008 DAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE Delhi -110 035
Contents Acknowledgements Preface vii ix Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Water and Land Resource Use 1.2 Environmental Impact from Agriculture and Aquaculture 1.3 Food Production and Fisheries 1.4 Perspective of Water Quality Management in Aquaculture PART I; WATER RESOURCES FOR COASTAL AQUACULTURE Chapter 2: Water Resources 15 2.1 Sources of Water 2.1.1 Surface Water 1. Ponds, Lakes and Reservoirs 2. Streams and Rivers 3. Sea or Saltwater 2.1.2 Ground Water 2.2 Coastal Environment 2.2.1 Coastal Areas and Zones
xii 2.2.2 Ecological Divisions 1. Marine Environment 2. Rocky Shore 3. Sandy and Muddy Shores 4. Brackish Water or Estuarine Environment 5. Marshes and Mangroves 2.2.3 Coastal Regulation Zone 2.3 Characteristics of Water Resources 2.3.1 Environmental Characteristics of Coastal Water 1. Carrying Capacity and Standing Crop 2. Primary Productivity and Food Chain 3. Principles Governing the Coastal Water Ecosystem 4. Aquatic Biodiversity 5. Ecological Factors 2.3.2 General Characteristics of Source Water 1. Water Temperature and Circulation 2. Dissolved Oxygen Content 3. ph and Carbon Dioxide 4. Nutrients and Organic Substances 5. Plant and Animal Community 6. Ground Water Characteristics 7. Summary Chapter 3: Water Resource Use in Coastal Area 52 3.1 Coastal Fisheries and Aquaculture 3.1.1 Coastal Fisheries 1. Types of Fisheries 2. Inland Capture Fisheries 3. Marine Fisheries 3.1.2 Coastal Aquaculture 1. Types of Aquaculture Production Systems 2. Species Cultured in Coastal Waters 3. Operation of Coastal Aquaculture Farms 3.2 Multiple Use of Coastal Resources 3.2.1 Coastal Agriculture 1. Constraints Affecting Coastal Agriculture 2. Crop Selection for Salt-affected Soils
xm 3.2.2 Coastal Forestry 1. Types of Coastal Forests 2. Socio-economic Values of Coastal Forests 3. Special Characteristics of Coastal Forestry 3.2.3 Waste Disposal and Pollution in Coastal Areas 1. Sources of Pollution 2. Types of Contaminants and Pollutants 3. Major Examples of Coastal Pollution Chapter 4: Impact of Coastal Resource Use on the Environment 89 4.1 Impacts on Coastal Environment 4.1.1 Alterations and Destruction of Habitats 4.1.2 Effects of marine Pollution on Human Health 4.1.3 Hypernutrification and Eutrophication 4.1.4 Decline of Fish Stocks and Other Renewable Resources 4.1.5 Changes in Sediment Flows 4.2 Potential and Specific Cases of Impacts 4.2.1 Agricultural Activities 4.2.2 Capture Fisheries and Coastal Aquaculture Activities 4.2.3 Multiple Activities 4.3 Integrated Ecosystem Approach for Resource Use References PART II: WATER QUALITY Chapter 5: Water Quality Characteristics 109 5.1 Water Quality Parameters 5.1.1 Classification of Water Quality Parameters 1. Dissolved Oxygen 2. Primary Productivity and Nutrients 3. Temperature 4. Salinity 5. Suspended Solids 6.pH 7. Alkalinity and Hardness 8. Dissolved Gases 9. Biological Parameters
XIV 5.2 Fundamental Principles 5.2.1 Equilibrium Relationships 1. Some Thermodynamic Concepts of Equilibria 2. Ionic Equilibrium in Water 3. Ionization of Acids and Bases 4. Solubility Relationship 5.2.2 Process Kinetics 1. Rate of a Chemical Reaction 2. Kinetic Models of Homogeneous Reactions 3. Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 5.2.3 Biological Reaction Systems 1. Kinetics of Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions 2. Kinetics of Microbial Growth Chapter 6: Aquaculture Pond Dynamics 152 6.1 Dynamics of Nutrientsin Pond Ecosystem 6.1.1 NitrogenCycle 6.1.2 Phosphorus Cycle 6.1.3 Carbon Cycle 6.2 Dynamics of Dissolved Oxygen in Pond Water 6.2.1 Biological Processes 1. Photosynthetic Oxygen Production 2. Oxygen Requirements of Fish 3. Diurnal Changes of Oxygen Concentration in Ponds 6.2.2 Diffusional Oxygen Transfer by Natural Aeration 6.2.3 DO Concentration Balance in Pond Water during Culture 1. Channel Catfish Pond 2. Trout Pond 3. Warm Water Fish 6.3 Dynamics of Fertilized Pond 6.3.1 Effects of Fertilization on Pond Dynamics 1. Changes in Acidity due to Nitrogen Fertilizer 2. Effects of Fertilization on Phosphorus Cycle 3. Plants and Invertebrates 6.4 Dynamics of Limed Pond 6.4.1 Effects of Liming on Pond Dynamics 1. Increase in Total Alkalinity 2. Increase in Concentration of Total Available Carbon Dioxide
3. Increase in Total Hardness 4. Effect on Activity of Microorganisms 5. Increase in the Availability of Mud Phosphate 6.4.2 Effects of Liming on Plankton and Invertebrates 6.5 Dynamics of Fed Pond 6.5.1 Types of Feeding and Feeding Options 6.5.2 Supplementary Diet Feeding 6.5.3 Complete Diet Feeding 6.5.4 Feed Conversion, Utilization and Waste Production 1. Material Balance of Feed Utilization 2. Nutrients and Solids Budget 3. Waste Components 4. COD Balance 6.5.5 Waste Production from Fertilization 6.5.7 Residues of Chemicals 6.5.8 Effects of Wastes on Culture Environment 6.5.9 Relationship of Water Quality with Feeding Rate References XV PART III: WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT Chapter 7: Introduction 197 7.1 Culture Systems 7.1.1 Types of Culture Systems 1. Open System 2. Semi-closed System 3. Closed System 7.1.2 Basic Approach of Closed System 7.2 Treatment Methods 7.2.1 Pond Management Methods 7.2.2 Recirculating Methods Chapter 8: Fertilization of Ponds 202 8.1 Fertilizers 8.1.1 Types, Properties and Sources of Fertilizers 1. Types and Sources 2. Properties 8.1.2 Requirement of Fertilizers 1. Principle 2. General Guidelines for Fertilizer Requirement
8.2 Application of Fertilizers 8.2.1 Types of Fertilizer 8.2.2 Application Rate 8.2.3 Method of Fertilizer Application 1. Platform Method 2. Nylon Cloth or Bag Method 3. Application of Liquid Fertilizers 8.3 Organic Manures 8.3.1 Types of Manures 8.3.2 Method of Straight Manual Application of Manures 1. Frequency of Application 2. Methods 3. Manure Application through Integrated Farming of Livestock XVI Chapter 9: Liming of Ponds 213 9.1 Lime Requirement andliming Rate 9.1.1 Calculation of Liming Rate 1. Technique Employed on Agricultural Crop 2. Technique Based on Exchange Acidity of Soil 9.2 Liming Methods 9.2.1 Liming of Ponds 1. Liming Materials 2. Methods of Application 9.2.2 Liming of Acid-sulphate Soils Chapter 10: Aeration 220 10.1 Aeration Fundamentals 10.1.1 Theory of Oxygen Transfer 1. Factors Affecting Volumetric Oxygen Transfer Coefficient (l^a) 2. Evaluation of l^a by Aeration Experiment 3. Measurement of DO 4. Standard Oxygen Transfer Rate and Aeration Efficiency 10.1.2 Rating of Aeration Systems under Field Conditions 10.2 Aeration Systems 10.2.1 Types of Aerators 1. Classification 2. Surface Aerators 3. Diffused Air Systems 4. Gravity Aerators
xvn 10.2.2 Types of Aeration 1. Emergency Aeration 2. Supplemental or Continuous Aeration 3. Aeration to Prevent Thermal and Oxygen Stratification 4. Aeration of Source Water 10.2.3 Comparative Performance of Various Aerators 1. Aeration Rate and Efficiency 2. Oxygen Saturation and Oxygen Transfer 10.3 Fish Production 10.4 Aeration Process and Aerator Design 10.4.1 Computation of Oxygen Demand and Supplemental Aeration Requirement 1. Average Daily Oxygen Demand 2. Maximum Daily Oxygen Demand 3. Oxygen Supplied by Water Flow 4. Supplemental Oxygen Demand 10.4.2 Surface Aerator Design 1. Practical Approach 2. Simulation Approach Chapter 11: Feed Management 246 11.1 Feeding Options 11.1.1 Pond Fertilization and Supplemental Feeding 1. Feed Ingredients 2. Supplementary Feeds 11.1.2 Complete Diet Feeding l.typesoffeed 2. Formulation 3. Preparation 11.2 Feeding Methods 11.2.1 Feeding Rate and Frequency 1. Feeding Rate 2. Feeding Frequency 11.2.2 Feeding Tables 11.2.3 Feeding Devices 1. Hand-feeding or Manual Feeding 2. Automatic Feeders
xvm Chapter 12: Effluent Treatment Systems 267 12.1 Types of Waste Materials in Aquaculture Effluents 12.1.1 Suspended Solids 12.1.2 Nutrient and BOD 12.1.3 Pathogens 12.2 Treatability of Aquaculture Effluents 12.2.1 Load and Concentration of Pollutants 12.2.2 Pollution Potential of Effluents 12.2.3 Comparison of Effluents from Different Culture Systems 1. Intensive Aquaculture Systems 2. Semi-intensive Aquaculture Systems 3. Extensive Aquaculture Systems 12.3 Effluent Standards and Regulations 12.3.1 Effluents Standards 12.3.2 Guidelines and Codes of Conduct 12.3.3 Codes of Practice 1. Farm Effluents 2. Site Characteristics for Discharge Regulations 12.3.4 General Regulations of Coastal Farm 12.4 Effluent Treatment Practices 12.4.1 Treatment Technologies in Use 1. Solids Removal from the Pond Bottoms 2. Solids Removal by Sedimentation Ponds 3. Solids Removal by Filtration 4. Solids Removal in Cage Farms 5. Biological Treatment 6. Sludge Treatment 12.4.2 Effluent Treatment in Shrimp Farming Systems 1. Effluent Treatment Scheme of Aquaculture Authority of India 2. Environment-Friendly Scheme for Intensive Farming 3. Closed-Recirculating Shrimp Farming Chapter 13: Solids Removal 286 13.1 Screening 13.1.1 Types of Screens 13.1.2 Typical Design Characteristics and Data
xix 13.2 Mechanical Filtration 13.2.1 Types of Filters 1. Gravity Filters 2. Rapid Filters 3. Diatomaceous Earth Filter 13.2.2 Filtration Process 1. Solids Removal Mechanisms 2. Mathematical Analysis 3. Computation of Head-loss 4. Filtration Process Variables 13.3 Sedimentation of Solids 13.3.1 Types of Settling 13.3.2 Types of Sedimentation Tanks or Basins 13.3.3 Mathematical Analysis of Settling 1. Settling Velocity Analysis 2. Removal Efficiency of a Basin Chapter 14: Biological Filtration 306 14.1 Principle of Ammonia Removal by Nitrification 14.1.1 Organisms 14.1.2 Reactions 14.1.3 Environmental Factors Affecting Nitrification Rate 1. Ammonia Concentration 2. Dissolved Oxygen Concentration 3. Temperature Changes 4. ph Changes 5. Effect of Minerals and Chemicals 6. Filter Media Types 14.2 Filter Design 14.2.1 Filter Configuration 1. Submerged Filters 2. Trickling Filters 3. Rotating Media Filters ' 14.2.2 Operating Parameters 1. Flow Distribution 2. Hydraulic Loading 3. Duty Cycle
XX 14.2.3 Comparison of Existing Designs of Biofilters 14.2.4 Filter Design Procedure 1. Ammonia Mass Balance 2. Nitrate-Nitrogen Mass balance 3. DO Mass Balance 4. DO Mass Balance in Biofilter Chapter 15: Disinfection 324 15.1 Methods of Disinfection 15.1.1 Chlorination Process 1. Forms of Chlorine 2. Chemistry of Chlorination 3. Disadvantages of Chlorination 4. Chlorine Removal 5. Chlorine Compounds Used in Practice 15.1.2 Potassium Permanganate Treatment 15.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics of Disinfection References Appendices 341 Index 351