The European Working Conditions Surveys series (the EWCS) Agnès Parent-Thirion, on behalf of the European Working Conditions Survey team

The European Working Conditions Surveys series (the EWCS) Agnès Parent-Thirion, on behalf of the European Working Conditions Survey team

European Working Conditions survey series 6 th edition 1991, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015 From 12 MS in 1991 to 35 European countries in 2015 From a module of the EB to a full survey Cooperation and discussion with South Korea, the USA, China, Brazil with the support of the ILO Experience in Tanzania, Mozambique, Jamaica and Zanzibar Survey of workers according to the LFS definition Face to face interviews at peoples homes Behaviours and personal experiences rather than opinions, attention to objective measures. Knowledge owned by workers Explicit commitment to gender mainstreaming Comparability across countries is key

Objectives of the EWCS Assess and quantify working conditions of both employees and the self-employed across Europe on a harmonised basis. Analyse relationships between different aspects of working conditions. Identify groups at risk and issues of concern as well as of progress. Monitor trends by providing homogeneous indicators on these issues. Contribute to European policy development in particular on quality of work and employment issues.

A short overview of the historical development of the questionnaire over time 91: Karasek and osh 95 : flexibility, women managers, cognitive dimensions of work and collective forms of work organisation, discrimination and intimidation 2000 : working time flexibility, remuneration 2005 : gender, more on training, conciliation 2010 : economically dependant worker, changes restructuring, local gender segregation, working time preferences, psychosocial risks and leadership, job security and employability, psychological well being and general health

5 th EWCS deliverables Converge nce forhcomi ng Forthcoming women managers

5th EWCS - integrated analysis Coherence in practice Qwe overview report - job Trends in job quality Work and health Sectoral profiles Convergence Occupational profiles - Worker Work life balance Women, men and working conditions in Europe -Employment - Work organisation Sustainable work and the ageing population Quality of employment conditions and relations Self employed or not? Work organisation and employee involvement Contribution to ESDE (chapter) 2012 2013 2014 2015

6th EWCS : trends but adapt to future policy challenges Demographics: company size, country of birth Working time: Part time / full time status of partner, working time preferences at individual and household level, on call work Self employed: map heterogeneity of self employment Health: sleeping, chronic diseases Measure recent changes in the job, in the organisation Address organisational justice at the workplace Develop more work life balance and positive experience of work Job engagement Review place of work, leadership, sustainability of work Quantity of training received reintroduced

WORKING CONDITIONS: OVER TIME AND SOME CHALLENGES

What issues come out of the EWCS? Job quality : it matters, it s more than money, different trade offs between dimensions of job quality Work organisation a key determinant of job quality and employee well being and human capital development Psychosocial risks probably on the increase as illustrated by work intentisification Physical risks still present Slow progress in gender segregation. Women still bear much of the burden of care activities Ageing at work : working conditions matter very much Working time / unpaid work Gender inequalities / women managers Employment status in evolution Fronteers are blurring Unfavourable working conditions tend to cluster disproportionally in some groups. We can improve working conditions and change work but efforts need to be supported

Exposure to physical risks (1990-2010) Vibrations Noise High temperatures Low temperatures Breathing in smoke/ dust and/or vapours Chemical substances 1991 EC12 1995 EC12 1995 EU15 2000 EU15 2000 EU27 2005 EU27 2010 EU27 Tiring or painful positions Heavy loads Repetitive hand or arm movements 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Coordinating 70% the Network of EU Agencies 2015

EC12 (/EU15 from 1995) EU27 Evolution of weekly working hours, 1991 2010, EC12, EU15 and EU27 (%) 2010 2005 2000 1995 1991 2010 2005 2000 1995 1991 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 20 or less 21 to 34 35 to 38 39 to 41 42 to 48 more than 48

Trends and country comparisons in work intensity Tight deadlines (at least ¼ of the time) Turkey Cyprus Germany Finland Malta Ireland Slovenia Austria United Kingdom Sweden Norway Hungary Czech Republic France Greece Kosovo Croatia Estonia Netherlands Romania Denmark Belgium FYROM Italy Albania Luxembourg Spain Latvia Slovakia Montenegro Poland Bulgaria Lithuania Portugal 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 EU12 EU15 EU27 20% 10% 0% 1991 1995 2000 2005 2010

Trends in creative work and task variation 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Solving unforeseen problems Complex tasks Learning new things Applying ow n ideas Not monotonous tasks Not repetitive tasks Creative w ork Task variation EU15-1995 EU27-2000 EU27-2005 EU27-2010

Proportion of women in supervisory positions, EC12, EU15 and EU27, 1991-2010 (%) 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% EC12 EU15 EU27 10% 5% 0% 1991 1995 2000 2005 2010

The decline of learning organisations organizational types across EWCS waves (2000 2010) EWCS survey wave 2000 2005 2010 Total Learning Lean Taylorist Simple 39.1% a 40.1% a 36.8% b 38.6% 25.7% a 27.2% b 28.6% c 27.2% 18.6% a 18.8% a 18.3% a 18.5% 16.6% a 13.9% b 16.3% a 15.8% Source: ESDE report forthcoming 15

men women Number of hours spent on paid and unpaid work per week, by gender and working time (EU27) part time full time part time paid work commuting time unpaid work full time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 EWCS, 2010

49 and 50-59 per country : Country effect is stronger than age effect 1 Richer content FI 0.5 More time constraints IE SE DK UK FI SE MT CZ LU FR DE SI DK LU B IE MT EE SI CZ CY UK ES HU BE 0 DE less PL -1 NL-0.5 0 FR CY SK RO 0.5 more 1 EL painful LV PT EL EE RO painful ES IT HU NL LT LT IT LV SK BG PL -0.5 PT BG Less time constraints less rich content -1

Characteristics of work situation by gender and age group

NL DE IE NO DK UK SE FI CY IT EE EU27 LV BE AT RO LT CZ MT SK LU BG PL AL ES HR HU FR EL ME KO PT MK SI TR Able and willing to do the same job at 60? 100,00% 80,00% 60,00% 40,00% 20,00% 0,00% Yes, I think so I would not want to No, I do not think so

Job sustainability and working conditions Male Female Male Female Autonomy Low 48 46 Posture related index Low 77 69 Work intensity Worker participation Work well done High 72 67 High 39 35 Low 64 61 Career development possibilities Low 49 49 High 51 50 High 66 64 Low 46 47 Work life balance unfit 47 42 High 70 65 fit 62 62 Never 43 44 Learning new things Low 49 49 Always 63 60 High 63 60

JOB QUALITY INDEX

Job quality: four indices Operationalisation 2012 (Green Mostafa ) Intrinsic Job Quality Earnings Prospects Skill use and discretion Intrinsic Job Quality Working Time Quality Social environment Physical environment Work intensity Source : trends in job quality,

Job quality indices and well being of job holders (Ardito et all) 80 70 60 50 40 80 70 60 50 40 61 0,39 69 0,26 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Deciles of the earning index 57 0,43 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Deciles of the prospects index 74 0,24 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 80 70 60 50 40 80 70 60 50 40 0,45 54 23 73 0,24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Deciles of Intrinsic Job Quality index 61 0,37 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 1 0 67 0,30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Deciles of working time quality index Source Health and well being, eurofound 2013 1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0

JOB QUALITY OF WOMEN AND MEN OVER THE LIFECOURSE

No simple explanation Women and men at crossroads Welfare & Family system Segregation Working time Quality Well being Labour market structures Gendered Lifecourses & gendered division of domestic labour

Working time quality Working time quality per lifestages 75 70 65 60 55 50 single 18-35 living with parents/ relatives single <=45 no children couple no children, woman aged <=45 couple with children <7 years couple with children 7-12 years couple with children 13-18 years couple no children, woman 46-59 couple no children, both partners >=60 single >=50 no children Male Female

Prospects Prospects across life stages 70 65 60 55 single 18-35 living with parents/ relatives single <=45 no children couple no children, woman aged <=45 couple with children <7 years couple with children 7-12 years couple with children 13-18 years couple no children, woman 46-59 couple no children, both partners >=60 single >=50 no children Male Female

Intrinsic job quality Intrinsic job quality per lifestages 75 70 65 60 single 18-35 living with parents/ relatives single <=45 no children couple no children, woman aged <=45 couple with children <7 years couple with children 7-12 years couple with children 13-18 years couple no children, woman 46-59 couple no children, both partners >=60 single >=50 no children Male Female

Income Income across life stages 1700 1500 1300 1100 900 700 single 18-35 living with parents/ relatives single <=45 no children couple no children, woman aged <=45 couple with children <7 years couple with children 7-12 years couple with children 13-18 years couple no children, woman 46-59 couple no children, both partners >=60 single >=50 no children Male Female

TIME USE OF WOMEN AND MEN OVER THE LIFECOURSE

unpaid working time (hrs) Unpaid working time (care and household activities) over the life course 50,0 45,0 40,0 35,0 30,0 25,0 20,0 15,0 10,0 5,0 0,0 Singles w/o Singles w/o kids, living kids (< 46y) at home (18-35) Couples (women < 46 y) w/o children Couples, youngest child < 7 y Men Couples, yongest child 7-12y Women Couples, youngest child13-18y Empty nest couples w/o resident children Older couples w/o resident children Older singles w/o resident children Union formation increases unpaid working time for women decreases for men During parenting phase employed women spend twice as much hours on these activities as men When entering parenting phase women reduce paid work by 4 hrs but increase unpaid work by 25 hrs men s unpaid work increases by 12 hrs The decision of men to engage in care work is more circumstance dependent than it is for women working time organisation, atypical working hours

Well-being Well-being across the life stages 4,6 Male Female 4,5 4,4 4,3 4,2 4,1 single 18-35 living with parents single <=45 no children couple no children, woman aged <=45 couple with couple with children <7 children 7- years 12 years couple with children 13-18 years couple no children, woman 46-59 couple no children, both partners >=60 Gender gap in well-being starts small in the early life stages, with increasing male advantage up to the point when children enter the household. Women s well-being remains lower than men s for the rest of the life stages, and the gap does not close even when the children have left home. Cross-country variation in gender gaps in well-being among working parents

Policy perspectives Measuring working conditions is possible. Labour markets and social policies are closely linked, and to economic policies more generally. A lifetime perspective is crucial in the successful development of labour market, social and economic policies in pursuit of higher levels of employment. The improvement of working conditions is not automatic and requires to be supported; there are some concerns for the future. Many improvements do not cost money Good working conditions can assist in meeting the ageing challenge and developing our human capital Surveys, statistics are needed to monitor developments and understanding changes. They should build on interdisciplinary approach and involve data user

Merci, apt@eurofound.europa.eu More on www.eurofound.europa.eu

Proportion of women in the largest occupations, by employment status / white & blue collar

Level of job segregation at the workplace by gender, 2010, EU27 (%) 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% Mostly men Mostly women More or less equal number of men and women 20% 10% 0% Men Women All

Working hours of the household 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Czech Republic Slovakia Slovenia Lithuania Cyprus Finland Bulgaria Denmark France Hungary Portugal Estonia Poland Latvia Sweden Spain both partners w ork fulltime male breadw inner female breadw inner EU Italy Greece Belgium Luxembourg Romania Germany Austria United Kingdom Ireland Malta Netherlands modified male breadw inner modified female breadw inner both partners w ork parttime

Little social support at work 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% < 25 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60+ Men Women

No good prospects for career advancement 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% < 25 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60+ Men Women

Policy implications Gender equality, improvement of working conditions, progress in well being and economic growth are fundamental issues to address in order to meet the objective of Europe 2020. A number of important social justice choices are to be made. Progress are not natural and require to be supported Segregation Policies to promote desegregation in education and jobs, better valuation of female-dominated occupations/ sectors; more opportunities for vertical progression Time Policies to avoid extremes of long or short working hours and to back up better balance between work and other activities with support for working parents Job quality Policies to ensure that job creation at lower end of labour market takes into account working conditions and pay; policies to facilitate life stage changes without long term consequences for job quality; policies to open up prospects for women in particular and to address risks of poor working conditions for men

Policy implications Well being Governments policy objectives to include well being alongside growth and to recognise that gender equality may have positive impacts for well being ( including opportunities for employment for women even in childcare life stage) and employers to take action to promote women s organisational satisfaction Trends Policies to monitor impact of recession/austerity on public sector and gender equality and to ensure that closing of gender gaps comes about through positive upgrading not negative reductions in job quality for men. Addressing short term issues but also preparing for longer term challenges. This may go through the promotion of sustainability of work and employment (older working definition) : Sustainable work is one that allows one to become an older worker and facilitates workers to function not only as a worker, but also member of a household, citizen and an individual. This is done by contributing during their working life duration, to developing their health, well-being, skills and resources and expanding opportunities for choice. This is done by the provision during their various employment situations, of not only manageable but also meaningful work, engagement in collective learning at the workplace, as well as work related and organisation dialogue and reflective practices. Sustainable work will assist workers, companies when they are confronted with dramatic life and work events and will support and facilitate their adaptation to change and transitions. Sustainable work systems are work systems in which human and social resources are not just consumed, but preserved and regenerated.

Social justice dilemna to address The success of policies aimed at increasing working life duration will be assessed at workers levels (working life duration); a wide range of actors engaged at different levels which actions are embedded in various national welfare and employment systems will be instrumental in achieving or not this objective. Workers should not bear all moral hazard of new career paths in a volatile environment. Making working life longer implies rethinking the place of work in our societies Different ways to achieve this objective can be identified for example maximizing the employment rate through deregulating labour market and prioritizing individual employability or promoting active security for all in a flexible and innovative economy. Building on Amartya Sen s capabilities theory as a framework to analyse the links between possibilities and choices on the one hand and social systems (and work arrangements) on the other hand which men and women can make in order to reach better well-being or work-life balance over the life course, raise queries on the collective resources available to people that enable them to control their working life. What resources institutionalised and/or negotiated can contribute to increasing working lives or will lead to involuntary fragmented career. Collective resources come from public policy or collective bargaining or standards and rules. Employment status and related rights are important i n opening up areas of freedom or constraining individual work opportunities to what extent and how can a person convert collective resources into effective achievements and valuable outcomes for herself / himself and the economy. Capacity for work, employment, learning, voice, work life balance, capacity for voice should be considered and will contribute to addressing quality of life A number of tailored policies such as active ageing policies, OSH, health inequalities and gender equality as well as workplace innovation points to the key role that work has on these outcomes and to the need to explain its specific contribution to the achievement of these policies. Will these lead to competition among workers or, on the contrary, will they support all groups of worker and contribute to higher quality?

WORKER CHARACTERISTICS (Demographic, Socioeconomic) MACRO CONTEXT countries and their socioeconomic policies MESO SOCIAL CONTEXT company and sector characteristics JOB INSECURITY (To loose current job in the next 6 months) QUALITY OF EMPLOYMENT EMPLOYMENT SECURITY Employment conditions -Contract security - Income and benefits security -Work security -Employability security Employment relations -Representation security -Empowerment security The General work environment QUALITY OF WORK Working conditions (Environmental, Ergonomic, Social relationships at work, Support, Emotional demands, Workspeed) Job content (Autonomy, Skill discretion, Control) WORKER OUTCOMES INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES (Satisfaction with work, Absenteeism, Presenteeism, Ability to stay in employment, Work-family interaction) HEALTH OUTCOMES (Mental wellbeing, Perceived general health, Physical complaints, Musculoskeletal complaints, Psychosomatic complaints, Perception of health or safety at risk, Perception that work affects health) EMPLOYABILITY (To find a similar job)

C. METHODS (iv) Table A.1. Employment security concept: dimensions, indicators and original variables in EWCS Trends Dataset B. Employment relations 1. Representation security Indicators Description Variables used Employee acting as an employee representative at Employee representative y10_q63 workplace Self-determination over work Self-determination of working hours y10_q39 schedule * 2. Empowerment security * Indicators Description Variables used S Communication and participation y10_q51c; --- c with superiors Index** a y10_q51d; Management holds l meetings in which workers express Consulting employees y10_q64 their views e ** Scale

C. METHODS (v) Table A.1. Employment security concept: dimensions, indicators and original variables in EWCS Trends Dataset C. Subjective employment security variables 1. General Indicators Description Variables used Job insecurity Perceived likelihood of losing current job in the next 6 y10_q77a 2. Concerning employability Indicators Description Variables used Perceived possibilities of job Perceived likelihood of finding a similar job if losing the change current one y10_q77f * Only for self-employed ** Scale

C. METHODS (vi) Table A.4. Scales Description Name Communication and participation with superiors Index Number of items Cronbach's alpha value % Variance explained by main factor 4 0,71 53 Employees 3,9 Autonomy Index 3 0,78 69 All 0,6 Skill discretion Index 4 0,50 41 All 0,9 Control Index 7 0,67 38 All 1,3 Ambiental risk Index 8 0,82 45 All 0,2 Ergonomic risk Index 5 0,69 53 All 0,1 Workspeed Index 3 0,67 60 All 0,4 Emotional demands Index 4 0,55 43 All 1,0 Superiors support Index 5 0,65 44 Employees 5,2 Unwanted social contacts at work Index 13 0,66 20 All 0,2 Mental well-being Index 5 0,87 67 All 0,4 Physical complaints Index 6 0,47 28 All 0,2 Musculoskeletal complaints Index 2 0,63 73 All 0,3 Psychosomatic complaints Index 5 0,56 37 All 0,2 Base % Missing

D. RESULTS (xiii) 2. European salaried work can be classified in a five-categories typology of workers: 1. Standard employment-like jobs 2. Instrumental jobs 3. Portfolio jobs 4. Precarious unsustainable jobs 5. Precarious intensive jobs Standard employment-like jobs (34.4%) Similar to the ideal typical standard employment relation. (+) High probability of a stable jobs, receiving benefits in nature, having self-determination of work schedules, dispose of an employee representative, and get training opportunities. Who? More common among men, high educational level employees, skilled technicians and professionals, managers, legislators, public sector employees and big firms. Related to other advantageous features such as: high control and support, low unhealthy and stressful exposures.

D. RESULTS (xiv) 2. European salaried work can be classified in a five-categories typology of workers: 1. Standard employment-like jobs 2. Instrumental jobs 3. Portfolio jobs 4. Precarious unsustainable jobs 5. Precarious intensive jobs Instrumental jobs (28.9%) (+) Relatively stable jobs and sustainable income. (-) Few benefits, opportunities for training and participation and involvement. Who? More common among women, clerks, service workers and industrial sector (among others). They are in more adverse situation with regard to the most other indicators of quality of work.

D. RESULTS (xv) 2. European salaried work can be classified in a five-categories typology of workers: 1. Standard employment-like jobs 2. Instrumental jobs 3. Portfolio jobs 4. Precarious unsustainable jobs 5. Precarious intensive jobs Portfolio jobs (10.7%) Highly skilled and flexible upper level of the labour market (+) Overall beneficial employment conditions and relations. (-) Two main exceptions: high levels of work intensity and uncompensated flexible working times. Who? Men, middle-aged workers, highly educated workers, legislators, managers and professionals, employees working in very large companies and in the industrial or services sector. Beneficial scores on other quality of work indicators except for unwanted social contacts, emotional demands and work speed.

D. RESULTS (xvi) 2. European salaried work can be classified in a five-categories typology of workers: 1. Standard employment-like jobs 2. Instrumental jobs 3. Portfolio jobs 4. Precarious unsustainable jobs 5. Precarious intensive jobs Precarious Unsustainable jobs (9,9 %) (-) Overall adverse employment conditions and relations. High probability of part-time & low income. Who? More common among women, younger workers, employees with a low educational level, service workers, elementary occupations and employees in the service and public administration sectors, and employees working alone.

D. RESULTS (xvii) 2. European salaried jobs can be classified in a five-categories typology of workers: 1. Standard employment-like jobs 2. Instrumental jobs 3. Portfolio jobs 4. Precarious unsustainable jobs 5. Precarious intensive jobs Precarious Intensive jobs (16,0 %) (-) Full-time employment with the most adverse scores on the other indicators, specially work intensity and high flexibility. Who? male, younger age, blue collar employed in the agricultural and industrial sector, service workers and those working in (very) small companies. Also adverse working conditions and poorer job contents are characterising these jobs.

Albania Albania Austria Austria Belgium Belgium Bulgaria Bulgaria Croatia Croatia Cyprus Cyprus Czech Republic Czech Denmark Republic Denmark Estonia Finland Estonia France Finland FYROM France Germany FYROM Germany Greece Hungary Greece Ireland Hungary Italy Ireland Kosovo Italy Latvia Kosovo Lithuania Latvia Luxembourg Lithuania Malta Montenegro Luxembourg Netherlands Malta Montenegro Norway Netherlands Poland Portugal Norway Romania Poland Slovakia Portugal Slovenia Romania Spain Slovakia Sweden Slovenia Turkey Spain United Kingdom Sweden Total Turkey United Kingdom Total D. RESULTS (xviii) Figure 8. Distribution of prevalence of types of jobs by country in 2010. 1 1 0,9 0,9 0,8 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 Precarious Precarious unsustainable unsustainable Portfolio Precarious intensive Instrumental Instrumental SER-like Portfolio Precarious intensive SER-like 0,3 0,3 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,1 0 0 Source: European Working Conditions Survey, 2010. Typology of jobs distribution, by country

D. RESULTS (xx) Figure 1. Associations between types of jobs and worker outcomes adjusted by sex, age, and working conditions and job content (Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals) Source: European Working Conditions Survey, EWCS 2010

D. RESULTS (xxi) Figure 2. Associations between types of jobs and worker outcomes adjusted by sex, age, and working conditions and job content (Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals) Source: European Working Conditions Survey, EWCS 2010

D. RESULTS (xxii) Figure 3. Associations between types of jobs and health outcomes adjusted by sex, age, and working conditions and job content (Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals) Source: European Working Conditions Survey, EWCS 2010

E. Conclusions (ii) Typology of jobs concludes in 5 types: Standard employment (overall most favourable) Instrumental (fairly stable but few benefits, training and participation) Portfolio (advantageous but high work intensification & uncompensated flexible working times) Precarious unsustainable (overall adverse with part-time and low income) precarious intensive jobs (overall adverse with high flexibility and intensive working hours). Standard employment and instrumental jobs are still predominant in Europe However, more than one third of workers is in the very flexible and intensive portfolio jobs or in one of the precarious Negative consequences for well-being: Adverse general work environment Outcomes on general satisfaction, ability to stay in employment, health and well-being

F. Conclusions (iii) 2. The need to better understand quality of employment This is one of the first empirical multidimensional assessments of the quality of employment transcending conventional approaches only distinguishing standard jobs from atypical contracts Limitations: Lack of uniformity in the indicators included in different editions of EWCS, which limits time trends estimations, so understanding evolution over time Limited information about informal employment and unemployment. Time trends are difficult to interpret, as formal employment, informal and unemployment act as communicating vessels across which workers move especially during economic crisis. Gap between theoretical dimensions of quality of employment and availability of indicators (eg. Entitlement to employee rights or collective representation security)

E. Conclusions (iv) 3. Policy relevant conclusions: Policies towards more flexibility and competitiveness should take into account the adverse consequences for well-being, health and satisfaction of the employees affected. Important consequences for the productivity and ability of employees to stay in employment until later age. Policies to elevate employability are needed, specially among those in the most instable positions. Training (objective employability) and prospects for career advancement (subjective employability) are low specially among the most vulnerable to flexible and highly volatile jobs. Policies to increase worker participation are also needed. Communication and participation with superiors is low. Less than 50% of workers have an employee representative, being more frequent among older and higher educated workers.