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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect Energy Procedia 77 (2015 ) 356 363 5th International Conference on Silicon Photovoltaics, SiliconPV 2015 Potential-induced degradation for encapsulated n-type IBC solar cells with front floating emitter Andreas Halm, Andreas Schneider, Valentin D. Mihailetchi, Lejo J. Koduvelikulathu, Lacramiora M. Popescu, Giuseppe Galbiati, Haifeng Chu, Radovan Kopecek International Solar Energy Research Center - ISC Konstanz, Rudolf-Diesel Str.15, 78467 Konstanz, Germany Abstract Studying encapsulated n-type interdigitated back contact (IBC) solar cells with front floating emitter (FFE) we observe a power degradation mechanism which behaves similar to the PID-p degradation for n-type IBC solar cells with front surface field described in [1] or for bifacial n-type solar cells in [2]. This power drop is not shunt-related and arises as loss of short circuit current and open circuit voltage in analogy to the findings in [1]. The power degradation occurs when biasing FFE-IBC minimodules with negative potential against the ground and can be fully regenerated by reversing the polarity of the bias potential. The susceptibility to PID for our IBC minimodules depends on the encapsulation material to higher or lesser extent; until now no material was identified which can totally prevent PID. Bifacial IV measurements and EL recordings let us conclude that the PID we observe is non-local and causes a homogenous degradation of the front surface of the solar cell. Silvaco Atlas simulations show that a total loss of surface passivation is not sufficient to explain the effect. 2015 Published The Authors. by Elsevier Published Ltd. This by Elsevier is an open Ltd. access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license Peer (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). review the scientific conference committee of SiliconPV 2015 under responsibility of PSE AG. Peer review by the scientific conference committee of SiliconPV 2015 under responsibility of PSE AG Keywords: Polarisation effect; potential-induced degradation; n-type silicon; IBC solar cell; front floating emitter 1. Introduction Potential-induced degradation was firstly described as a power loss mechanism occurring for Sunpower modules operated at high positive potential against the ground [3]. It was called the surface polarization effect and was explained by an accumulation of negative charges on top of the silicon nitride layer at the front surface of the backcontact back-junction n-type solar cells and found to be reversible [3]. During the following years the universal term potential-induced degradation was shaped which includes above described phenomenon as well as power degradations observed for modules made from p-type cells (see e.g. [4]). PID is not yet explained satisfactorily. In [1], the power drop caused by PID is divided into two categories. Both are reversible and both occur after applying a 1876-6102 2015 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer review by the scientific conference committee of SiliconPV 2015 under responsibility of PSE AG doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.07.050

Andreas Halm et al. / Energy Procedia 77 ( 2015 ) 356 363 357 high voltage stress (positive or negative potential) between solar cell and ground; one is PID-s which results in a massive cell shunting; the other one is PID-p related to a degradation of the front surface passivation. In this study we investigate encapsulated n-type IBC solar cells featuring a p + front floating emitter (FFE) in respect to their behavior towards high voltage stress. The FFE is capped by a silicon oxide, silicon nitride stack acting as antireflective coating and passivation layer. In contrary to the IBC cells with n + front surface field examined in [1, 3] our encapsulated IBC cells with FFE degrade while applying a negative potential against the ground. Nomenclature PID PID-s PID-p FFE IBC potential-induced degradation PID related to solar cell shunting PID related to a degradation of the front side passivation layer of a solar cell front floating emitter interdigitated back contact 2. Experimental To investigate how our n-type IBC cells with FFE behave when biased at high voltages against the ground we assembled one cell minimodules and performed classic PID tests. 2.1. Sample preparation Minimodules were assembled with our in house developed IBC solar cells - so called Zebra cells [5,6,7] processed on 156 x 156 mm² n-type Cz wafers and with p-type Al-BSF reference cells. The module materials employed are commercially available EVA or alternative encapsulation materials, standard 3.2 mm thick solar glass and white, black or transparent tedlar based backsheet. IBC cells are contacted by conductive adhesive gluing of interconnection ribbon and p-type cells by soldering. Lamination is done identically for all modules of one encapsulation material. 2.2. Test procedure PID tests were performed at two climatic conditions. First tests were run at room temperature and 55 % relative humidity; later on tests were run at 65 C and 5 % relative humidity. For both conditions the minimodules are placed with the glass side facing down on a metal plate. An aluminium foil between the plate and the module front side simulates the module frame and guarantees proper contacting. A potential of either plus or minus 1000 V is applied between the metal plate and the base or emitter contact of the minimodule. After each test interval, IV, SunsVoc and EL measurements are executed. A series of different tests was performed to investigate the PID behaviour of our Zebra cells: PID test at different climatic conditions PID tests with IBC minimodules featuring different encapsulation materials PID tests of bifacial IBC minimodules gradual PID tests with measurements after short biasing intervals 3. Results In general we found that using the module architecture and materials described above, our IBC cells are prone to PID to greater or lesser extent. Different from the findings in [1, 3] though, our IBC cells degrade while biased negatively against the ground. This fact can be attributed to the opposite polarity of the doping of our front side. The PID effect can be regenerated repeatedly by reversing the voltage potential and does not result in a permanent drop

358 Andreas Halm et al. / Energy Procedia 77 ( 2015 ) 356 363 of module power. Our findings here contradict previous results shown in [8]; the reason for this is most likely mistaken experimental procedure combined with material failure. 3.1. PID test conditions Figure 1 shows the relative power drop for the same minimodules tested at different climatic conditions. Fig. 1: Relative power versus module condition during PID test sequences investigating degradation and regeneration effect for different test conditions; both graphs show the relative power drop for the same encapsulated n-type IBC solar cells with FFE and a p-type reference. Left: test condition I (25 C and 55% r.h.) is run twice to prove repeatability. Right: comparison run at condition II with 65 C and 5% r.h.; due to an operation error regeneration at +1000V was running at 45 C only; for IBC module 1 and the reference module an interconnection tab broke during the test sequence lowering the module FF and hence its power output We observe that for both climatic conditions the magnitude of degradation and regeneration is nearly identical while applying the same voltage bias. Degradation and regeneration times though differ significantly for the two test conditions. These findings coincide with observations made for modules based on p-type cells (see e.g. [9]).The test sequence at 25 C and 55% r.h. is run twice to prove repeatability; the only experimental difference was that for the first run the BSF and for the second run the emitter was contacted against the ground. For all further tests condition II is applied due to faster degradation and regeneration rates. 3.2. PID for different encapsulation materials and repeatability Figure 2 shows the relative power drop measured during a PID test sequence on minimodules laminated with different encapsulation materials. Four different materials were tested; one is standard EVA (labeled as EVA) and the others are alternative encapsulation materials labeled as M1 to M3.

Andreas Halm et al. / Energy Procedia 77 ( 2015 ) 356 363 359 Fig. 2 : PID test sequences for different encapsulation materials; the relative power drop is plotted against the module state negative potentials cause PID and positive potentials cause regeneration. Left: degradation and regeneration for two IBC modules each assembled with encapsulation material M2 and M3. Right: degradation and regeneration for modules encapsulated with EVA or material M1. We observe PID for all IBC minimodules. The extent of the power drop is different for all materials but cannot be clearly related to the volume resistivity given by the suppliers (see Table 1). Regenerating the power drop is possible for all samples. The samples of material M2 and M3 regenerate fully after 19 hours at positive bias while samples laminated with M1 still regenerate further after additional 19 hours at +1000V bias. Table 1: volume resistivity of the encapsulation materials Material EVA M1 M2 M3 Volume resistivity according to supplier ( cm) ~3x10e15 > 1x10e15 ~ 3x10e16 ~4x10e18 The right graph in Figure 2 shows one more phenomenon which is interesting to note: All IBC samples featuring M1 degrade about 10% relative more during the second degradation cycle compared to their initial power output. This could be attributed to positively charged particles penetrating the encapsulation material during the first run which still reside inside the encapsulation layer even after the regeneration process. Then, since they are already present in the encapsulation layer the extent of degradation is higher for the second run. This effect cannot be observed for IBC samples laminated with EVA possibly due to a much shorter degradation time. Figure 3 shows IV results after gradual PID experiments. Degradation for EVA reaches its maximum after 70 minutes already while minimodules assembled with M1 do not show an onset of PID yet.

360 Andreas Halm et al. / Energy Procedia 77 ( 2015 ) 356 363 Fig. 3: Relative drop of J SC, V OC and efficiency after intermittent PID testing for minimodules assembled with EVA and M1 3.3. Comparison of front and rear side power output after PID To find first evidence that the PID observed for IBC cells with FFE is an effect influencing the front surface passivation of the cell, PID tests were run on bifacial IBC minimodules laminated with transparent backsheet. Three modules were placed with the glass side towards the Al foil as usual while three modules were placed with the transparent backsheet towards the Al foil. IV curves before and after the tests were recorded for front and rear side illumination. The modules which were placed with the backsheet side against the Al foil show no degradation at all proving that the glass plays a crucial role for PID. Figure 4 summarizes the results of the degraded modules. The front side power output decreases by 32 to 37% relative while the rear side power output only decreases by roughly 12% relative for all three minimodules. Fig. 4: Front vs. rear side power drop for bifacial IBC minimodules after PID testing and comparison of the bifaciality factor before and after PID.

Andreas Halm et al. / Energy Procedia 77 ( 2015 ) 356 363 361 Since the rear side power output degrades to a lesser extent it can be assumed that PID in our case arises from a degradation of the front side of our solar cells. To set the front and rear side power drop in relation, the bifaciality factor is shown. It increases from 0.75 initially to 0.95 to 1.05 meaning that in the last case the power output of the module is higher when illuminated from the back accommodating all metal fingers compared to the front which is metal free. 3.4. Origin of the power drop Fig. 5: Averages (2 to 8 tests) of the relative drop of pff, FF, V OC, J SC and efficiency after PID testing on minimodules assembled using different encapsulation material Phenomenologically, the origin of the power drop is a severe decrease of the short circuit current and the open circuit voltage which are shown in Figure 5 for groups of modules with different encapsulation material. Fill factor and pseudo fill factor stay nearly constant for all minimodules which indicates that PID does not cause cell shunting in our case. The extent of the J SC drop varies between 5 and 37% relative depending on the individual minimodule and the encapsulation material employed. The variation of the V OC drop is not as drastically and lies between 2 to 7% relative. It cannot be explained solely by its logarithmic decrease due to a decrease in J SC. Fig. 6: EL picture of a minimodule in the initial state (left), after PID (middle) and regenerated (right) all depicted in the same color scale

362 Andreas Halm et al. / Energy Procedia 77 ( 2015 ) 356 363 Figure 6 shows a sequence of EL pictures recorded of a minimodule in its initial state, then the same minimodule after PID and again regenerated; all depicted in the same color scale. The recording does not reveal localized defects of the module in the PID state but an overall lower signal meaning that the non radiative recombination in the solar cell has increased uniformly. This is another hint that the power drop stems from a loss of front surface passivation - that means PID-p. 3.5. Silvaco Altlas simulation: influence of the front surface recombination velocity Silvaco Atlas device simulations are run implementing a model of our IBC cell with FFE varying the front surface recombination velocity. The simulation calculates the change of IV parameters for SRV s between1000 cm/s Fig. 7: Comparison of J SC and V OC versus time for gradual PID testing (straight lines) against J SC and V OC versus SRV retrieved from device simulation (dashed lines) which is similar to the real device and 10e7 corresponding to a total loss of the surface passivation. The data is compared to measurements recorded during the gradual PID test starting at t = 0 min with a regenerated minimodule and ending at t = 70 min with a fully degraded minimmodule. Figure 7 shows the results. For the degradation of V OC simulated and experimental results are in very good agreement. For J SC though, the experimentally observed drop is about twice as high as predicted by simulation. This lets us conclude that the PID effect we observe can be partly explained by a total loss of surface passivation in combination with another effect, e.g. a contamination of the emitter by mobile ions which would result in a degradation of the diffusion length in the emitter. 4. Conclusions We observe a power degradation mechanism for our encapsulated n-type IBC cells with front floating emitter after applying a negative voltage stress between minimodule and a metal plate covered with Al foil. This PID effect is completely reversible, repeatable and does not cause cell shunting. J SC and V OC drop severely, EL pictures reveal a uniform increase in non-radiative recombination. Comparing the front versus the rear side power output in the degraded state for bifacial IBC modules shows that the front side performance suffers to a significantly higher extent. These facts let us conclude that the power drop is related to a degradation of the front surface passivation a PID-p effect as described in [1]. The only difference is that the front side of our Zebra cell is doped with boron a p + layer and the cells investigated in [1] are doped with phosphorous - an n + layer. This is most probably why our

Andreas Halm et al. / Energy Procedia 77 ( 2015 ) 356 363 363 modules degrade while applying a negative voltage stress in contrary to cells in [1, 3] which degrade for positive potentials. An accumulation of positive charges on top of the cell surface can explain this effect only partly. Silvaco Altlas device simulations show that a total loss of the front surface passivation cannot explain the PID effect we observe completely. The severe J SC degradation measured in experiments suggests an additional effect, e.g. a decrease of the diffusion length in the region of the FFE due to contamination by in-diffused ions. More detailed characterization is needed to identify the root cause of the degradation mechanism we observed. Acknowledgements The author wants to acknowledge Christoph Peter for fruitful discussions, Ahmed Mahran for his work on ISC s PID setup and the European Union for funding parts of this work in the frame of the Eurostar project moderntype (E!7232) and the project HERCULES which has received funding from the European Union s Seventh Program for research, technological development and demonstration under grant No 608489. References [1] Naumann V., Geppert T., Großer S., Wichmann D., Krokoszinski H., Werner M., Hagendorf C. Potential-induced Degradation at Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cells. Energy Procedia Vol. 55, 2014 pps. 498-503 [2] Pingel S., Janke S., Frank O.: Recovery Methods for Modules Affected by Potential Induced Degradation (PID). 27thEU PVSEC, 2012 [3] Swanson R., Cudzinovic M., DeCeuster D., Desai V., Jürgens J., Kaminar N., Mulligan W., Rodrigues-Barbarosa L., Rose D., Smith D., Terao A., and Wilson K., (2005, October). The surface polarization effect in high-efficiency silicon solar cells. 15th PVSEC, 2005 [4] Pingel S., Frank O., Winkler M., Daryan S., Geipel T., Hoehne H. and Berghold J.: Potential Induced Degradation of solar cells and panels, IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, 20-25 June 2010 [5] Mihailetchi V.D. et al. High efficiency IBC solar cells fabricated on large area n-type silicon using industrial available techniques, technical digest, 21st International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference 28.11.2011-2.12.2011, Fukuoka, Japan [6] Galbiati G. et al., Large Area Back-Contact Back-Junction Solar Cell with Efficiency Exceeding 21%, IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, Jan 2013. (DOI:10.1109/JPHOTOV.2012.2224848) [7] Halm A. et al. The Zebra Cell Concept - Large Area n-type Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cells and One-Cell Modules Fabricated Using Standard Industrial Processing Equipment, proceedings of the 27th EU PVSEC 2012, Frankfurt, Germany [8] Halm A. et al. Evaluation of cell to module losses for n-type IBC solar cells assembled with state of the art consumables and production equipment, proceedings of the 39th IEEE PVSC 2013, Tampa, USA [9] Hattendorf J., Loew R., Gnehr W., Wulf L., Koekten M., Koshnicharov D., Blauaermel A., Esquivel J. Evaluation of cell to module losses for n-type IBC solar cells assembled with state of the art consumables and production equipment, proceedings of the 39th IEEE PVSC 2013, Tampa, USA