NATIONAL AND STATE LEVEL SCENARIO OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

CHAPTER IV NATIONAL AND STATE LEVEL SCENARIO OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION 4.1 Water Resources of India India receives 4 Km 3 of water through rainfall. Of this nearly 75 percent occurs only during monsoon. The surface flow is estimated as 188 Km 3. The annual replenish able ground water resources are assessed to be about 6 Km 3 of which the annual usable resources are estimated at 42 Km 3. Inland water resources of the country are classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks and ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies cover an area of about 7 million hectare. State-wide details of inland water resources are given in Table 4.1. There are few desert rivers, which flow till a certain distance and get lost in deserts. There are complete arid areas where evaporation equals rainfall and hence no surface-flow. The medium and minor river basins are coastal rivers. The Brahmaputra, Ganga, Indus and Godavari Rivers together cover more than half of the area of the country. The whole of the west coast stretching 15 km between Surat in Gujarat and Cape Comorin in Tamilnadu are fed by fourteen medium and eighteen minor river basins leaving important cities like Mumbai, Panaji, Cochin, Trivandrum out of major river basins. On the east coast of Peninsular India there are three pockets, which are out of any major river basins. These three pockets are: the area south of River Cauvery starting from Madurai to Cape Comorin; the area between Pennar and Cauvery basin wherein Chennai and Pondicherry are located; and the area between Mahanadi and Godavari basins in Orissa coast. There is a tremendous variation both in the quantity of discharge from a major basin to minor one and also in the quality of discharge from region to region. 4.1.1 Surface Water All the major river basins are not perennial. Only four of the thirteen major basin posses areas of high rainfall, i.e. Brahmaputra, Ganga, Mahanadi and Brahmini having annual average discharge of a minimum of.47 million cubic meter per Km 2, and they are perennial. Six basins (Krishna, Indus, Godavari, Narmada, Tapi and Subarnarekha ) occupy 8

the area of medium rainfall and have annual average discharge of a minimum of.26 million cubic meter per Km 2, and the remaining four (Cauvery, Mahi, Sabarmati and Pennar) occupy the area of low rainfall and have annual average discharge between of.6 and.24 million cubic meter per Km 2. Thus, many of the major river basins also go dry during summer leaving no available water for dilution of waste water discharged in them. State wise perennial river length in India is given in figure 4.1. The river length in Uttar Pradesh is inclusive of Uttaranchal. Similarly, the Chattisgarh is covered under Madhya Pradesh; and Jharkhand under Bihar. Figure 4.1 state wise perennial length of river India Statewise Perrnnial Riverian Length in India 7 6 5618 69 5 4612 Riverian length in KM 4 3 2 1 229 194 171 348 841 2525 1163 225 417 1155 2868 147 228 242 556 758 76 753 52 234 65 48 jammu & kashmir Himachal pradesh Punjab Haryana Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh Bihar West Bengal Orissa Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Gujarat States Karnataka kerala Tamil Nadu Assam Meghalaya Manipur Arunchal Pradesh Sikkim Nagaland Mizoram Goa Delhi 81

Table 4.1 State wise Details of Inland Water Resources(Lakh Hectares) S. No. Name of the State/UT Rivers/Canals (Length,Kms) Reservoir Tanks, Lakes & Ponds Beels, Oxbow Lakes & Derelict Water Brackish Water 1 Andhra Pradesh 11514 2.34 5,17 -.64 8.15 2 Arunachal Pradesh 2 -.1.3 -.4 3 Assam 482.2.23 1.1-1.35 4 Bihar 32.6.95.5-1.6 5 Goa 25.3.3 - -.6 6 Gujarat 3865 2.43.71.12 3.76 7.2 7 Haryana 5 NEG.1.1 -.2 8 Himachal Pradesh 27781.7.17.6 -.3 9 Jammu and Kashmir 3.42.1 - -.43 1 Karnataka 9 2.2 4.14 -.8 6.42 11 Kerala 392.3.3-2.43 3.3 12 Madhya Pradesh 2661 2.94 1.19 - - 4.13 13 Maharashtra 16 2.79.5 -.1 3.39 14 Manipur 336.1.5.4 -.46 15 Meghalaya 56.8.2 NEG -.1 16 Mizoram 1395 -.2 - -.2 17 Nagaland 16.17.5 NEG -.67 18 Orissa 45 2.56 1.14 1.8 4.17 9.67 19 Punjab 1527 NEG.7 - -.7 2 Rajasthan N.A. 1.2 1.8 - - 3 21 Sikkim 9 - - -.3 -.3 22 Tamil Nadu 742.52 6.91 N.A. C.56 7.99 23 Tripura 12.5.12 - -.17 24 Uttar Pradesh 312 1.5 1.62 1.33-4.45 25 West Bengal (P) 2526.17 2.76.42 2.1 5.45 Total Water Bodies 26 Andaman & Nicobar Islands UNION TERRITORIES 115.1.3 -.37.41 27 Chandigarh 2 - NEG NEG - - 28 Dadra & Nagar Naveli 54.5 - - -.5 29 Daman & Diu 12 - - - - - 3 Delhi 15.4 - - -.4 31 Lakshadweep - - - - - - 32 Pondicherry 247 - NEG.1.1.2 Total 185734 2.5 28.55 5.45 14.22 68.72 Source: Fisheries Division, Dept. of Agriculture & Co-operation, Ministry of agriculture N.A. : Not Available (P) : Provisional NEG : Negligible C : Included in brackish water area 82

4.1.2 Ground Water After making provision for drinking, industrial and other purposes (other than irrigation), which is about 16 percent of total potential, the potential available for irrigation is 36 Km 3 per year. The figure for net draft of ground water considering the present utilization indicates that substantial portion of total potential (about 68 percent) is still remaining untapped. 4.1.3 Polluted River Stretches The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with concerned State Pollution Control Board conducts water quality monitoring at 784 locations. The monitoring data are compiled, analyzed and compared with desired water quality in different water bodies. The monitoring programme helps in prioritizing pollution control efforts, establishing water quality trends and evaluating effectiveness of pollution control measures already in existence. In order to prioritize the pollution control efforts, CPCB identifies areas of high priority based on the severity of the problem. In 1988-89, CPCB identified 1 problematic areas and 1 polluted river stretch to concentrate the pollution control efforts. The list of polluted stretches formed the basis for formulation of River Action Plan of the National River Conservation Directorate. The list was further extended based on increasing pollution problem in our country. The water quality data in the Year 2 and 21 was analyzed and 86 polluted water bodies are identified. Among these 71 are rivers and 15 are lakes and tanks. These water bodies do not meet the desired level of water quality for defined uses with respect to Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand. In the present exercise, those water bodies having BOD more than 6 mg/l are identified as polluted water bodies which can be the result of both domestic and industrial pollution; Coliform count is directly related to domestic wastewater. 4.2. Central Pollution Control Board The CPCB, an autonomous body of the Ministry of environment and forest, was set up in September 1974, under the provisions of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. It coordinates the activities of the State Pollution control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control committees (PCCs), and also advices the Central Government 83

on all matters concerning the prevention and control of environmental pollution. CPCB, SPCBs and PCCs are responsible for implementing the legislation, regulations and guidelines relating to prevention and control of pollution; they also formulate rules and regulations which prescribe the standards for emissions and effluents of air and water pollutants and noise levels. CPCB also provides technical services to the Ministry for implementing the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. During the year ninth five year plan, special thrust was given to nationwide pollution prevention plan, particularly with reference to combating vehicular pollution, pollution control in 17 categories of highly polluting industries, implementation of action plans for restoration of environmental quality in critically polluted areas, noise pollution control and proper management of solid waste, hazardous waste and biomedical waste. 4.2.1 The Central Pollution Control Board classification of industries The Central Pollution Control Board has classified industries which could cause a high degree of pollution as "Red" industries. The study report by Stanley associates shows that there are altogether 3,226 industries in the state but wastewater data is available only for 2,115 industries. Of these 1,522 are small, 388 medium and 25 large scale. The large industries generate more than 85 percent (ie.5, 16,53 cubic meter (m 3 ) of effluent per day, whereas the small and medium industries generate 1 percent and 4.5 percent (i.e. 6,262 and 27,98m 3 ) of effluent per day respectively. An estimated 6,3,89 m 3 of effluents are generated by all the 2,115 industries. More than 36 percent of the waste water is generated by four thermal plants (54,846m 3 per day), 57 percent of which is discharged untreated. Chemical industries contribute more than 11 percent of discharges (2,11m 3 ) of which nearly 91 Percent (1,98 m 3 ) is generated by large industries alone. Only 65 percent of the waste from the large chemical industries is treated. Much of the effluent generated by oil refineries, textile, dye, chemical, thermal, steel and spinning industries are discharged untreated. The same problem exists for medium scale industries like fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, textiles and spinning mills. Small industries especially electroplating, petrochemicals, textiles, oil refineries, cements, tanneries, dyes and pharmaceuticals discharge untreated waste into water bodies, which is a matter of concern due to the potential damage caused to the environment by polluting water and soil. 84

More than 4 percent of discharges are attributed to tannery industries, which is largely small-scale production. Industries of the miscellaneous category generate more than 25 percent of total industrial discharges. Seventy percent of these units are small scale. Monitoring these small scale units and providing treatment plants becomes very difficult. Several industrial units are located in clusters. In such areas, effluent treatment facilities are either not installed or still under various stages of construction. Table 4.2: State-wise Status of Highly Polluting Industries in 17 Categories S. No State Complying Defaulting Closed Total 1 Andhra Pradesh 243 9 34 367 2 Assam 1 3 5 18 3 Bihar 25 4 19 48 4 Chhattisgarh 18 5 2 25 5 Goa 1 1 11 6 Gujarat 263 61 21 345 7 Haryana 73 31 23 127 8 Himachal Pradesh 14 3 2 19 9 Jammu & Kashmir 8 3 11 1 Jharkhand 8 7 6 21 11 Karnataka 98 5 4 143 12 Kerala 23 11 15 49 13 Madhya Pradesh 6 4 15 79 14 Maharashtra 454 42 69 565 15 Meghalaya 8 8 16 Orissa 38 12 2 52 17 Punjab 53 31 17 11 18 Rajasthan 94 9 8 111 19 Tamil Nadu 175 42 3 22 2 Tripura 1 1 21 Uttaranchal 16 18 2 36 22 Uttar Pradesh 234 13 27 274 23 West Bengal 49 18 2 87 24 Chandigarh 1 1 25 Daman 1 2 3 26 Delhi 2 3 5 27 Pondicherry 4 4 8 TOTAL 1991 414 339 2744 Source: Computed from CPCB 26 (As per information available with CPCB as on March 3 th 26) 85

India has made rapid strides in industrialization, and it is one of the ten most industrialized nations of the world. Nevertheless inadequate care in pollution control coupled with unplanned expansion has led to serious environmental damages. The central pollution control board (CPCB) has identified seventeen categories of industries (Small, large and medium scale) as significantly polluting industries. The state wise distribution of these industries pre-1991 industries indicates that the states of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have a large number of industries falling in these sectors (table 4.2). 4.2.2 Primary Water Quality Standards The CPCB has formulated a set of norms that need to be enforced by the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). Those standards are expressed in terms of effluent concentration and are called Minimum Acceptable Standards (MINAS). SPCB have the choice to adopt more stringent standards. The MINAS are defined for each type of industry and for each type of medium of release. Classical criteria are BOD, COD, and TSS. The MINAS standards concerning those criteria are respectively of 3 mg/l, 25 mg/l, and 1 mg/l. 4.2.3 Water pollution related legislation The first significant laws regarding the protection of environmental resources appeared in the 197's with the setting up of a National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination, and the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Since then, three main acts have been passed at the central levels that are relevant to water pollution: the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 as amended in 1991 and the Environment (Protection) Act (1986). The Water Act 1974 established the Pollution Control Boards at the central and state level. The Water Cess Act 1977 provided the Pollution Control Boards with a funding tool, enabling them to charge the water user with a cess designed as a financial support for the board's activities. The Environment Protection Act 1986 is an umbrella legislation providing a single focus in the country for the protection of environment and seeks to plug the loopholes of earlier legislation relating to environment. The law prohibits the pollution of water bodies and requires any potentially polluting activity to get the consent of the local SPCB before being started. 86

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 as amended in 1987. Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989. Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989. The Public Insurance Liability Act, 1991 Bio-Medical Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998. 4.2.4 Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board The Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board (TNPC Board), established in 1982, functions with the Head Office at Chennai. There are 5 Regional Offices headed by Joint Chief Environmental Engineers at Chennai, Madurai, Vellore, Coimbatore and Tiruchirapalli, 18 district offices headed by District Environmental Engineers at Chennai, Tambaram, Ambattur,Vellore, Vaniyambadi, Hosur, Cuddalore, Thanjavur, Tiruchirapalli, Karur, Salem, Erode, Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Dindigul, Madurai, Thirunelveli and Thoothukudi and 2 district offices headed by Assistant Environmental Engineers at Uthagamandalam and Nagercoil. The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board has established three Advanced Environmental Laboratories at Chennai, Salem and Madurai, nine District Environmental Laboratories at Ambattur, Vellore, Cuddalore, Tiruchirapalli, Dindigul, Thirunelveli, Coimbatore, Tiruppur and Hosur and two Mobile Environmental Laboratories at Manali and Thoothukudi. Industrial pollution can be attributed to more than 3 industrial units in Tamilnadu which have been classified under the highly polluting or red category. The total effluent generated is about 6 lakh liters per day, of which more than 5 lakh liters (85 percent) is generated by large industries. About 4 units discharge effluent directly Into Rivers. Of particular concern are the tanneries, which are located in Vellore, kancheepuram, Dindugal and Erode districts. The effluents have caused serious problems in the Palar basin. Similarly, there are a large number of textile bleaching and dyeing units in Tiruppur, Erode, and Karur, which have contaminated the Noyyal, Amaravathy and other water bodies. 87

There are five main industrial complexes in Tamil Nadu; manali / Ennore, Ranipet, Cuddalore, Mettur and Tuticorin which have chemical, petro-chemical and other industries. These industrial hubs have also become environmental hotspots. There are cement units, distillers, sugar, sago, paper, dairy industries, electroplating, chemicals, distilleries and fertilizers (Agro chemicals), mining industries, ores/mineral processing industries and a variety of other industries which consume water and also generate large quantities of effluent. Some of the industries have also provided the treated effluent for irrigation with some degree of success. However, other industries face serious problems when the water used for irrigation contaminated the surrounding wells. With a view to simplify the procedure and to categorize the industries/ projects on the basis of the pollution potential in a simple manner so that the common person can understand the severity of pollution from a particular industry, it is necessary to categorize the industries/ projects in three broad categories viz. Red, Orange and Green in decreasing order of severity of pollution. It is obvious that there cannot be a uniform classification throughout the country as the ecological configuration and sensitivity widely vary from place to place. Similarly geo-meteorological parameters also experience wide variations. 4.3 National Scenario of Industrial Pollution 4.3.1 Industrialization Industrialization is on the increase and so is the environmental pollution due to emissions and waste generated from these industries. The industrial pollution due to its nature has the potential to cause irreversible reactions in the environment and hence poses a major threat to sustainable development. Since the carrying capacity of the environment is not unlimited and some areas or ecosystems are more susceptible to adverse environmental impacts than others, the unplanned and haphazard location of industries might substantially increase the risk to the environment. Every day, the earth becomes more and more polluted. Air pollution fills our lungs with deadly substances. Water pollution rapidly declines the freshwater available on earth. Land pollution is causing once-fertile lands to become deserts. 88

During the past few decades Indian industries have registered a quantum jump, which has contributed to high economic growth but simultaneously it has also given rise to severe environmental pollution. Consequently, ambient air and water quality is seriously affected which is far lower in comparison to the international standards. The problem is worse in the case of water pollution. It is found that one-third of the total water pollution comes in the form of effluent discharge, solid wastes and other hazardous wastes. Untreated or allegedly treated effluents have increased the level of toxins like cyanide and chromium upto 2 times than permissible levels in 22 critically polluted areas of the country. The surface water is the main source to industries for waste disposal. It is found that almost all rivers are polluted in most of the stretches by some industry or the other. 4.3.2 Water pollution by industries By assuming the concentration of pollution and the water consumption the industries are classified into 3 major groups depending on their general character I. Major Water Intensive Industries 1. Tanneries and slaughter houses, 2. Pulp and paper industries, 3. Dyeing, printing and processing of textiles, 4. Breweries and soft drinks, 5. Dairy and dairy products, 6. Ice and cold storage, 7. Small steels mills, and 8. Food processing and preservation. II. Moderate water consuming industries 1. Canning industries, 2. Roller and Flour mills, 3. Food products like Biscuits. III. Industries Using Water for Sanitation 1. Electrical and Electronic Industries, 2.Woods, 3.Rubber, 4.Wax, 5.Glass, 6.Printing press, 7. Readymade Garments, 8.Plastic, 9.Paint and Varnish, 1.Metal and Alloys, 11.Textile and spinning, and 12 Cement and ceramic Products. 4.3.3 Water Pollution by small scale industries Small scale industries play a very important contributory role in environmental pollution. India has over 3 million small scale units accounting for over 4 percent of the 89

total industrial output in the country (CII and SII 1996). In general, Indian small scale industries are deficient in pollution control mechanisms. While the larger industries are better organized to adopt such measures, the small scale sector is poorly equipped (both financially and technically) to handle the problem. The small scale sector is playing a dominant role in Indian economy. But today they are caught in a double whammy. On one hand they are hit by a plethora of court cases for widespread pollution. And on the other, this sector faces an existential dilemma, as the Government gradually withdraws its protection, and forces to implement environmental regulations. In other words, on one side, small scale industries are badly needed and on the other they pollute the environment. The level of pollution caused by this sector in India per unit of output is higher than their counter part in developed countries. Every day, 2 million tonnes of waste is dumped into water sources around the world and 1,5 cubic kilometres of wastewater is produced throughout the world. The amount of contaminated water quickly rises due to this pollution because 1 litre of wastewater will pollute 8 litres of freshwater (World Water Assessment Programme 1). Water pollution is decreasing the available freshwater sources. In India, 14 percent of the rivers are severely polluted, 19 percent are moderately polluted, and 67 percent are moderately clean (Parsai, 24). The Textile industry of India has the distinction of being the forerunner to the industrial development of India. It plays a significant role in the economy of the state and the export market of this industry is a source for earning foreign exchange. Various sectors of this industry, namely Handloom, Power loom, Spinning, Processing, Knitwear and Garment production serve as a major employment provider to the qualified as well as ordinary public. Textile dyeing industries consume huge quantity of water for its processing requirement like sizing, desizing, kiering, bleaching, mecertiztion, dyeing and printing and generate equally huge amount of wastewater with a variety of pollutants requiring attention as they affect the aquatic ecosystem by depleting the dissolved oxygen content resulting in anaerobic conditions, increasing alkalinity and toxic substances like sulphides and chromium colour also often renders the water unfit for drinking and industrial purpose of the downstream users. 9

4.3.4 Red categories industries The highly polluting industries discharge voluminous quantities of toxic, industrial effluents every day. Water pollution reduces the amount of pure fresh water for various uses. The factors responsible for water pollution may be artificial or natural. More than natural factors, it is the unprecedented industrial pollution that is responsible for the scarcity of fresh water. Based on the large data base in terms of effluents and emissions generated over the years of their existence, industries/projects have been classified in Red, Orange and Green categories. In this classification Red represents highly polluting industries and Green represents marginally polluting units. Orange categories are moderately polluting industries. The proposed classification does not only simplify the common man s understanding regarding pollution but also helps in prioritization of plans and programmes of pollution control and surveillance according to pollution potential of a particular category of industry. All industries are classified as Red, Orange and Green, by the GOI, Ministry of Environment & Forests on the basis of their potential for causing pollution; Red - High Polluting, Orange - Less Polluting and Green Non-Polluting industries. Table 4.3 The CEPI scores for industrial area /cluster descending order in India S. No. Industrial cluster Air Water Land CEPI Parameter 1 Anleshwar (Gujarat) 72. 72.75 75.75 88.5 Ac-Wc-Lc 2 vapi(gujarat) 74. 74.5 72. 88.9 Ac-Wc-Lc 3 Ghaziabad (Uttar Pradesh ) 68.5 75.25 71.5 87.37 Ac-Wc-Lc 4 Chandrapur (Maharashtra) 7.75 67.5 66.5 83.88 Ac-Wc-Lc 5 Korba (Chhatisgarh) 67. 57. 72.5 83. Ac-Ws-Lc 6 Bhiwadi (Rajasthan) 71. 69. 59.5 82.91 Ac-Wc-Ls 7 Angul talcher (Orissa) 64. 69. 65.75 82.9 Ac-Wc-Lc 8 Vellore (Tamil nadu) 69.25 65.25 62.5 81.79 Ac-Wc-Lc 9 singrauli(uttar Pradesh ) 7.5 64. 59.5 81.73 Ac-Wc-Lc 1 Ludhiana (Punjab ) 68. 66. 64.75 81.66 Ac-Wc-Ls 11 Nazafgarh drain basin (Delhi) 52.13 69. 65.25 79.54 Ac-Wc-Lc 12 Noida (Uttar Pradesh ) 65.75 64. 6. 78.9 Ac-Wc-Lc 13 Dhanbad (Jharkhand) 64.5 59. 65.5 78.63 Ac-Wc-Lc 14 Dombivalli (Maharashtra) 66. 63.5 57.5 78.41 Ac-Wc-Lc 91

S. No. Industrial cluster Air Water Land CEPI Parameter 15 Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh ) 66. 63.5 56. 78.9 Ac-Wc-Lc 16 Cuddalore (Tamil Nadu) 54. 65.25 64. 77.45 Ac-Wc-Lc 17 Aurangabad (Maharashtra) 64.75 6.5 59.5 77.44 Ac-Wc-Lc 18 Faridabad (Haryana) 63.5 59. 6.75 77.7 Ac-Wc-Lc 19 Agra (Uttar Pradesh ) 59. 63.75 59.5 76.48 Ac-Wc-Lc 2 Manali (Tamil Nadu) 64. 59. 58. 76.32 Ac-Wc-Lc 21 Haldia (West Bengal) 53.75 64.5 57. 75.43 Ac-Wc-Lc 22 Ahmedabad (Gujarat) 62.75 58. 58. 75.28 Ac-Wc-Lc 23 Jodhpur (Rajasthan ) 52. 65.5 54. 75.19 Ac-Wc-Lc 24 Cochin (Kerala) 57. 64. 54. 75.8 Ac-Wc-Lc 25 Mandi Gobind Garh 62. 55.5 62. 75.8 Ac-Wc-Lc 26 Howrah ( West Bengal) 57. 54.5 63.5 74.84 Ac-Wc-Lc 27 Vatva(Gujarat) 6. 62. 56. 74.77 Ac-Wc-Lc 28 IP valley (Orissa) 61. 56.5 59. 74. Ac-Wc-Lc 29 Varnasi Mirzapur(Uttar Pradesh ) 58. 62. 53.5 73.79 Ac-Wc-Lc 3 Navi Mumbi(Maharashtra) 61. 59. 55.5 73.79 Ac-Wc-Lc 31 Pali(Rajasthan) 52. 64. 52. 73.73 Ac-Wc-Lc 32 Mangalore (Karnataka) 61.75 51.75 54. 73.68 Ac-Wc-Lc 33 Jharsguda (Orissa) 61. 56.5 56. 73.34 Ac-Wc-Lc 34 Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) 62.25 58.75 45.5 72.38 Ac-Wc-Lc 35 Bhadravati(Karnataka) 62.75 56.5 45.5 72.33 Ac-Wc-Lc 36 Tarapur(Maharashtra) 6.75 56. 51.25 72.1 Ac-Wc-Lc 37 Panipat (Haryana) 55.75 56.5 59. 71.91 Ac-Wc-Lc 38 Indore(Madhya Pradesh) 59. 57.5 52. 71.26 Ac-Wc-Lc 39 Bhavanagar(Gujarat) 54.5 57.5 57.75 7.99 Ac-Wc-Lc 4 Vishakapatanam (Andhra Pradesh) 57. 57.5 55. 7.82 Ac-Wc-Lc 41 Jungarh(Gujarat) 53.25 52.5 59.5 7.82 Ac-Wc-Lc 42 Asansole (West Bengal) 28.38 56.25 5.5 7.2 Ac-Wc-Lc 43 Patacheru (Andhara Pradesh) 5. 59. 54. 7.7 Ac-Wc-Lc 44 Paradeep (orissa) 54. 58.5 48. 69.26 Ac-Wc-Lc 45 Nashik(Maharashtra) 55. 57.5 5.25 69.25 Ac-Wc-Lc 46 Chembur(Maharashtra) 59.75 5.75 46. 69.19 Ac-Wc-Lc 47 Baddi (Himachal Pradesh) 56. 54.5 54.5 69.7 Ac-Wc-Lc 48 Kala Amb(Himachal Pradesh) 59.75 54.5 51. 68.77 Ac-Wc-Lc 49 Dewas (Madhya Pradesh) 51.5 57.5 51.5 68.77 Ac-Wc-Lc 5 Batala (Punjab) 51. 56.5 54.5 68.59 Ac-Wc-Lc 51 Tiruppur (Tamil Nadu) 56.75 5.75 53. 68.38 Ac-Wc-Lc 92

S. No. Industrial cluster Air Water Land CEPI Parameter 52 Durgapur (West Bengal) 49.5 58.5 47.5 68.26 Ac-Wc-Lc 53 Rachur(Karnataka) 59.75 46.5 44.5 68.7 Ac-Wc-Lc 54 Bidar(Karnataka) 58.75 49. 44. 67.64 Ac-Wc-Lc 55 Singhbhum west (Bihar) 55.5 51.5 51.5 67.3 Ac-Wc-Lc 56 Mettur (Tamil Nadu) 46. 58. 46.5 66.98 Ac-Wc-Lc 57 Vadodara(Gujarat) 57. 48. 48. 66.91 Ac-Wc-Lc 58 Jaipur (Rajasthan) 55. 52. 5.5 66.82 Ac-Wc-Lc 59 Rajkot(Gujarat) 45.5 54.5 55.5 66.76 Ac-Wc-Lc 6 Nagada Ratlam(Madhya Pradesh) 44.5 54.5 56. 66.67 Ac-Wc-Lc 61 Jamshedpur (Jharkhand) 55.75 55.5 42. 66.6 Ac-Wc-Lc 62 Pimpari chinchwad (Maharashtra) 55.25 52.5 46. 66.6 Ac-Wc-Lc 63 Raipur (Chhatisgarh) 56.5 42. 49. 65.45 Ac-Wc-Lc 64 Saraikela (Jharkhand) 5.5 49. 54. 65.38 Ac-Wc-Lc 65 Ramgarh(Jharkhand) 44. 53. 54.5 65.11 Ac-Wc-Lc 66 Pinia (Karnataka) 56.75 46. 42. 65.11 Ac-Wc-Lc 67 Pitampur(Madhya Pradesh) 47.75 54..5 65.9 Ac-Wc-Lc 68 Jalandhar (Punjab) 52. 52. 52. 64.98 Ac-Wc-Lc 69 Moradabad(Uttar Pradesh ) 54. 49. 47.5 64.71 Ac-Wc-Lc 7 Bada Jamtara (Jharkhand) 48. 52.5 52.5 64.47 Ac-Wc-Lc 71 Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh ) 53. 48. 48. 63.83 Ac-Wc-Lc 72 Parwanoo (Himachal Pradesh) 53. 47.5 48.5 63.83 Ac-Wc-Lc 73 Haridwar (Uttarakhand) 51.75 48. 4. 61.1 Ac-Wc-Lc 74 Vijaywada (Andhara Pradesh ) 52. 41.5 43. 6.57 Ac-Wc-Lc 75 Ferozabad (Uttar Pradesh ) 49. 47. 47.75 6.51 Ac-Wc-Lc 76 Mathura(Uttar Pradesh ) 48. 48. 48. 59.58 Ac-Wc-Lc 77 Meerut (Uttar Pradesh ) 5. 47.5 39.5 59.38 Ac-Wc-Lc 78 Erode (Tamil Nadu) 47.38 47.25 43.5 58.19 Ac-Wc-Lc 79 Surat(Gujarat) 46. 46.75 45.5 57.9 Ac-Wc-Lc 8 Kathedan (Andhara Pradesh) 44.5 47. 45.5 57.73 Ac-Wc-Lc 81 Kukatpalli (Andhara Pradesh ) 41.5 47. 43.5 56.56 Ac-Wc-Lc 82 Hajipur (Bihar) 43.5 44. 44.5 55.12 Ac-Wc-Lc 83 Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh ) 45.88 38.5 42. 54.63 Ac-Wc-Lc 84 Udhamsingh Nagar(Uttarakhand) 44. 41.25 44.25 54.37 Ac-Wc-Lc 85 Bhillai Durg(chhatisgarh) 44. 35. 33.5 5.57 Ac-Wc-Lc 86 Bulandsahr Khurza(Uttar Pradesh ) 42. 33.5 36.5 49.9 Ac-Wc-Lc 87 Burnihar (Assam) 39. 34.5 34.5 46.26 Ac-Wc-Lc 88 Digboi (Assam) 32. 32.75 38. 44.55 Ac-Wc-Lc Source: CPCB 29 93

Figure 4.2 Framework of Comprehensive environment pollution index Estimated score A1(based on the data on the presence of toxins) Estimated score A2 (based on the scale of industrial activities) Pollutant score A =A1 x A2 Estimated score B1(based on the Pollutant concentration data) Estimated score B2(based on the Impact on the people) Pathway score B =B1+B2+B3 Estimated score B3(based on the Impact on on Geo-ecological features) EPI=A+B+C+D Estimated score C1 (Based on potentially affected population) Estimated score C2 (Based on the level of exposure) Receptor score C =C1+C2+C3 Estimated score C3 (Based on the risk to sensitive receptors) Additional high risk element D (Based on the information on pollution control facilities) Source: CPCB Delhi 29 The table 4.3 describes that the, a total of 88 industrial areas or clusters have been selected by the based on environmental components such as air and water quality data, ecological damage, and visual environmental conditions. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in consultation with the Ministry of Environment & Forests Government 94

of India for the study. The Central pollution control board (CPCB) released study criteria for Comprehensive Environmental Assessment of Industrial clusters ranking the environmental pollution in 88 industrial clusters across the country. The study formulates a comprehensive environment pollution index (CEPI) on the basis of water, land and air pollution, ecological damage and waste management that had been used to make this assessment. The calculations of CEPI have been conducted for all these 88 areas based on the data made available by the CPCB. The framework of the CEPI is based on three factors namely pollutant, pathway and receptors. This phenomenon is very common where the polluting industries namely textile dyeing, leather tanning, paper and pulp processing, sugar manufacturing, etc. thrive as clusters. Generally, the above-mentioned industrial units function in small/medium scales with high employment generation and foreign exchange potential. But the pollution control mechanisms among these units are extremely weak. It was found that environmental pollution in 1 major industrial hubs had reached a very alarmingly high level, it is suggested that having aggregated CEPI scores of 8 and above. This list includes Ankleshwar (88.5 score) and Vapi (88.9 score) in Gujarat, Ghaziabad (87.37 score) and singrauli (81.73score) in Uttar Pradesh, Korba (83. score) in Chhattisgarh, Chandrapur (83.88score) in Maharashtra, Ludhiana (81.66 score) Punjab, Vellore (81.79) in Tamil Nadu, Bhiwadi (82.91) in Rajasthan and Angul Talcher (82.9 score) in Orissa (Table 4.3 and figure 4.2). 95

Table 4.4 Status of Red, orange and green categories industries district wise in Tamilnadu District National and State Level Scenario of Industrial Pollution Red Orange Green Grant total Large Medium Small Total Percent Large Medium Small Total Percent Large Medium Small Total Percent Chennai 56 55 332 443 4.43 25 92 253 37 3.11 5 45 14 154 1.31 967 Thiruvallur 112 136 644 892 8.92 25 11 278 413 3.47 15 76 2 291 19.49 1596 Kancheepuram 12 15 696 948 9.48 46 166 868 18 9.8 14 135 316 465 31.15 2493 Vellore 31 47 331 49 4.9 5 16 394 415 3.49 6 16 58 8 5.36 94 Vaniyambadi 6 3 296 332 3.32 1 15 314 33 2.77 6 9 61 76 5.9 738 Thiruvannamalai 5 1 18 24.24 2 3 17 112.94 136 Dharmapuri 45 28 194 267 2.67 23 13 388 514 4.32 1 2 7 1.67 791 Trichy 23 2 192 235 2.35 4 43 349 396 3.33 2 28 3 2.1 661 Perambalur 1 1 7 9.9 1 92 93.78 6 6.4 18 Ariyalur 13 14 21 48.48 27 27.23 75 Pudukottai 9 13 66 88.88 4 1 133 147 1.24 3 12 15 1 25 Thanjavur 8 5 11 123 1.23 2 18 2 22 1.85 4 31 35 2.34 378 Thiruvarur 5 1 27 33.33 1 54 55.46 1 1.7 89 Nagapattinam 9 6 43 58.58 7 54 61.51 1 1.67 129 Cuddalore 55 37 123 215 2.15 3 5 129 137 1.15 1 8 9.6 361 Villupuram 8 9 8 97.97 3 12 338 353 2.97 5 5.33 455 Karur 7 17 536 56 5.6 3 14 284 31 2.53 1 1.67 871 Madurai 19 2 221 26 2.6 12 64 339 415 3.49 5 11 16 1.7 691 Sivagangai 8 18 75 11 1.1 11 22 116 149 1.25 1 1.67 26 Virudhunagar 1 1 489 59 5.9 26 6 34 426 3.58 2 4 6.4 941 Ramanathapuram 2 4 22 28.28 2 6 28 36.3 64 Dindigul 14 18 114 146 1.46 47 8 156 283 2.38 3 8 11.74 44 Theni 4 4 28 36.36 9 11 83 13.87 5 5.33 144 Tirunelveli 13 13 288 314 3.14 13 43 535 591 4.97 11 11.74 916 Kanyakumari 3 12 251 266 2.66 12 664 676 5.68 6 33 39 2.61 981 Thoothukudi 23 16 163 22 2.2 9 43 135 187 1.57 1 8 29 38 2.55 427 Coimbatore 46 67 824 937 9.37 93 193 4 686 5.77 2 9 39 5 3.35 1673 Tiruppur 19 57 637 713 7.13 61 98 435 594 4.99 2 19 51 72 4.82 1379 Erode 21 24 637 682 6.82 39 95 559 693 5.82 1 5 13 19 1.27 1394 Salem 27 36 556 619 6.19 13 63 172 1148 9.65 1 2 3 6.4 1773 Namakkal 7 13 341 361 3.61 9 85 463 557 4.68 1 2 3.2 921 Udhagamandalam 7 6 36 49.49 7 12 222 331 2.78 1 9 1.67 39 Source: Tamil Nadu Pollution control Board 26 96

Table 4.5 Textile processing industries in Noyyal river basin districts Districts Karur - Coimbatore Tiruppur Erode Total Red categories industries (textiles processing) Large Medium Small Total 9 (42.82) 3 (14.28) 9 (42.82) 21 (1) 8 (18.18) 3 (6.81) 18 (4.9) 15. (34.9) 44 (1) 482 (31.87) 178 (11.77) 492 (32.53) 36 (23.8) 1512 (1) 65 (31.86) 194 (9.5) 712 (34.9) 484 (23.72) 24 (1) Source : Computed from Tamil nadu pollution control board 26 Figure 4.3 Textile processing industries in Noyyal river basin districts Source : Computed from Tamil nadu pollution control board 26 A number of industries situated on the banks of Noyyal Rivers and backwaters discharge their effluents into the wet-land system. These effluents contain a large number of toxic 97

ingredients such as acids, alkalis, heavy metals, suspended solids and a number of other chemicals. The environmental problems of textile manufacturing are related to the bleaching and dyeing (textile processing) segment of the industry. Noyyal command area in Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Erode and Karur districts, Tamil Nadu has housed at least 24 industries inter alia textiles processing industries among these industries, the Dyeing and bleaching units were discharging effluents to the lagoons thereby affecting Noyyal river basin and over at least 2 years since 1991. In the Noyyal basin of Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Erode and Karur districts, thousands of small scale industrial units are located in densely populated areas, thereby affecting a large number of people in the basin. Among the industrial establishments of Coimbatore the major water polluting industries dyeing and bleaching industries, printing units, electro plating, metal treatment, dairy and agro based industries. Nearly 9 dyeing industries are located in the Thelungupalayam and Perur area of urban Coimbatore. These industries release their effluent directly or with the primary treatment into the river Noyyal. The other major air and solid waste polluting industries are clustered foundries. There are nearly 35 foundries operating in the Coimbatore town. There are cluster in Avarampalayam, Peelamedu, Ganapathy and Singanallur. There have been 937 (9.37 percent) red category, 686 (5.77percent) orange category and 5 (3.35 percent) Green category industries in Coimbatore district. Red category industries are mostly chemicals, textiles and pharmaceutical industries. The details on the number of industries are given (Table 4.4). Due to tremendous development in hosiery business, Tiruppur has become a major industrial centre in south India. The major reason for the success of the city is its location in the cotton belt of Tamilnadu. The environmental problems of textile manufacturing are related to the bleaching and dyeing (textile processing) segment of the industry. In Tiruppur during the year 1981, only 68 textile processing units were functioning. The number rapidly increased to 45 in 1991 and 866 in 1997. The 72 textile processing units, which are functioning in Tiruppur, are classified in different ways. Out of the 72 units, are 53 (73.7 percent) fall in the red category and 199 (38.3percent) in orange, and none in the green category. Based on activity of the units in Tiruppur 199 (28.3 percent) units are involved in bleaching activities, 414 (59 percent) units in dyeing, and 89 (27.7 percent) units are engaged in both bleaching and dyeing (Table 4.5). 98

Table 4.6: Distribution of highly polluting industry Category Chennai Thiruvallur Kancheepuram Vellore Thiruvannamalai Dharmapuri Trichy Perambalur Pudukottai Thanjavur Nagapattinam Thiruvarur Cuddalore Villupuram Karur Madurai Sivagangai Virudhunagar Ramanathapuram Dindigul Theni Tirunelveli Kanyakumari Thoothukudi Coimbatore Erode Salem Namakkal Udhagamandalam Total Percentage Distillery 6 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 26.11 Tannery 1 21 224 473 1 26 1 1 1 1 59 1 44 854 3.64 Dairy 4 5 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 5 3 4 5 2 1 2 48.2 Pulp & paper 5 7 4 1 2 2 2 7 15 1 15 2 1 5 3 1 19.46 Oil refinery 7 5 4 4 6 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 6 1 6 2 59.25 Sugar 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 4 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 41.17 Caustic soda 1 1 1 3.1 Fertilizer 4 1 1 1 1 3 1 12.5 Sago 64 7 4 3 31 16 478 185 788 3.36 Dye 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 18.7 Electropla ting 32 65 27 22 2 1 6 1 9 3 1 1 6 2 66 1 5 4 263 1.12 Textile processing 3 14 141 35 1 11 8 1 5 2 65 63 12 184 5 3 26 2 4 98 487 299 282 3146 13.4 Pharmace uticals 17 17 56 4 4 2 4 1 1 7 2 12 3 1 4 2 5 1 1 2 146.62 Chemical 24 189 213 37 2 2 17 1 14 5 13 2 54 12 8 64 14 27 1 25 1 8 7 34 55 55 127 23 2 163 4.54 Sea food 3 4 9 2 4 1 6 8 37.15 Petro chemical 8 1 9.3 Abattior 2 1 3.1 Pesticide 21 2 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 8 14 59.25 Cement 1 5 9 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 28.12 Thermal plant 2 3 5 1 1 1 3 9 1 1 5 1 33.14 Rubber 2 21 19 52 1 4 2 4 64 21 2 1 4 197.84 Foundry 8 88 17 7 1 12 7 3 9 1 1 2 2 24 3 1 5 2 1 484 8 12 7 1 76 3.1 Engineering 69 283 323 68 2 14 46 2 39 7 8 2 5 9 3 12 17 7 36 25 2 153 7 12 2 6 1267 5.41 Non-ferrous metal 42 15 4 14 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 3 13.44 H paper board 3 9 5 3 9 3 26 2 2 7 15 5 18 17.45 99

Category Chennai Thiruvallur Kancheepuram Vellore Thiruvannamalai Dharmapuri Trichy Perambalur Pudukottai Thanjavur Nagapattinam Thiruvarur Cuddalore Villupuram Karur Madurai Sivagangai Virudhunagar Ramanathapuram Dindigul Theni Tirunelveli Kanyakumari Thoothukudi Coimbatore Erode Salem Namakkal Udhagamandalam Total Percentage Photo film 2 2.9 Spinning mills 15 11 1 3 21 9 1 6 2 1 1 5 12 49 31 126 7 18 17 44 3 29 39 128 86 63 1178 5.3 Iron & steel plant 7 1 2 1 3 14.6 Manmade fibre 2 1 1 3 7.3 Petroleum refinery 2 1 1 4.1 Food and beverage 12 27 51 1 1 5 38 1 2 1 2 43 5 23 3 13 7 8 8 4 25 22 28 2 7 348 1.48 Hospital (govt.) 27 7 12 11 7 12 6 3 4 6 7 8 3 1 15 1 8 7 15 12 1 9 12 8 4 5 229.97 Hospital (pvt.) 141 24 32 36 3 85 7 1 16 77 17 18 44 34 2 29 31 61 18 14 3 136 131 36 154 84 78 22 15 1439 6.14 Hotels 93 3 13 14 4 14 16 4 13 12 2 27 7 3 37 1 34 19 25 6 43 5 5 43 443 1.89 Kalyana mandapam 11 2 2 69 3 76 73 24 7 1 3 1 1 3 1 9 1 15 15 344 1.47 Miscellan eous 464 742 1312 853 13 336 332 119 154 159 72 52 142 336 15 286 121 471 3 12 8 585 688 264 694 471 593 272 286 1269 43.88 TOTAL 973 1596 2493 1642 136 791 661 183 25 378 129 89 361 455 871 691 26 941 64 44 144 916 981 427 352 1394 1773 921 39 2342 1 Percentage 4.2 6.8 11 6.6.5 8 3.4 2.8.8 1.1 1.6.6.4 1.5 1.9 3.7 3 1.1 4 1.9.6 4 4.2 1.8 11.5 6 7.6 3.9 1.7 98.3 Source: Tamil Nadu Pollution control Board 26 1

4.4 Polluting Industries in Tamil Nadu The geographic area of Tamilnadu consists of 17 river basins, a majority of which are water stressed. There are 61 major reservoirs, around 4, tanks and 3 million wells. Tamil Nadu s major textile cities namely Coimbatore the Manchester of south India, Karur known for cotton textiles, and Tiruppur, known for hosiery, face an uncertain future in industrial terms. The table 4.6 reveals that a number of different types of industries are located in Tamil Nadu. The total number of polluting industries located in Tamil Nadu is 2342. Among these, textile processing industries are dominant 3146 (13.44 percent) Coimbatore 98, Erode 487 and Karur 65, followed by private hospitals 1439 (6.14 percent) and spinning mills 1176 (5.1percent). The central pollution control board has classified three categories of industries namely red, orange and green industries based on the degree of Environmental concern. This table 4.6 describes that three categories of industries are classified district wise. There are more than 3 industrial units in Tamilnadu which have been classified under the highly polluting (or) red category industries. Other polluting industries like 1. Aluminium smelter, 2. Cement, 3. Chloro alkali, 4.Copper smelter, 5. Distillery including Fermentation industry, 6.Dyes & Dye-intermediates, 7. Fertilizer, 8. Iron & Steel (Involving processing from ore/scrap/integrated steel plants), 9. Oil Refinery (Mineral oil or Petro refineries), 1. Pesticides (Technical) (excluding formulation), 11. Petrochemicals (Manufacture of and not merely use of as it raw material), 12 Pharmaceuticals (Basic) (excluding formulation), 13.Pulp & Paper (Paper manufacturing with or without pulping), 14. Sugar (excluding Khandsari), 15. Tanneries, 16. Thermal power plants and 17.Zinc smelter. 4.5 Sources and location of potable water Data about the sources of water and their location within, near and away from the tap for households in India as a whole are provided in Table 4.7. It is interesting to note that the water tap seems to be the major source of potable water (36.7 percent) closely followed by hand pump (35.66 percent), whereas well (including tube well) serves the purpose to some extent (24 percent).the rest (3.91 percent) of the households depend upon the traditional sources (tank, pond, lake, river, canal, spring and other). Rural-urban 11

differences in sources of potable water are noteworthy. However the tap water (68.66 percent) serves as the predominant source of potable water in urban areas as against hand pump (43.2) in the case for rural areas. The share of tube well as a source of potable water is, more or less, same across the rural and urban areas. The data on sources of potable water by location for all India (panel 2 of table 4.7), showed that the location of tap within the premises of the households is comparatively of a higher extent followed by near premises, whereas some households (8 percent) obtain water from distant sources. In this study, it was observed that a greater proportion of households of urban areas the tap is located within the premises as against two fifths in rural areas, whereas in fifty per cent of the rural households the tap is located near the premises of households compared to 22 percent in urban areas. On the other hand, in a majority of households, hand pump and tube well & well located in near premises of households followed by within premises. More or less, a similar pattern is also noticed in the case of rural households, whereas urban households are somewhat good enough to have such facilities within premises followed by near premises. Another noteworthy pattern here is that a substantial proportion of rural households depend upon tube well and wells located at a distance of more than 1 meters and rural households having traditional sources like tank, pond, lake, river, canal and springs, compared with urban households. In this result it is evident that in both the households depend on modern sources for drinking water. 12

Table 4.7 Percentage of sources and location of potable water in India across their place of Residence, census 21 Sources /location of drinking water Total Rural Urban 1. Sources of drinking water Tap Hand pump Tube well Well Tank pond, lake River, canal Spring Any other 2 Source of potable water by location Tap Within premises Near premises Away Hand pump Within premises Near premises Away Tube well Within premises Near premises Away Well Within premises Near premises Away Tank pond, lake Within premises Near premises Away River, canal Within premises Near premises Away Spring Within premises Near premises Away Any other Within premises Near premises Away` 13 36.7 35.66 5.56 18.17 1.1 1.1.74 1.15 53.43 29.37 17.11 35.66 28.52 43.1 4.2 5.63 8.56 13.32 18.39 28.9.36 1.1 2.52.98 3.48.72 2.5.18.89 4.11 24.29 43.2 5.74 22.23 1.28 1.33.93 1.1 33.48 23.63 12.53 43.2 42.57 46.73 3.99 5.68 8.45 19.19 2.34 31.68.59 1.12 2.73 1.9 3.93.75 2.75.19.66 3.14 68.66 16.24 5.11 7.71.31.19.25 1.52 75.99 59.7 41.67 16.24 12.63 23.34 4.43 5.38 9.17 6.67 8.8 13.96.1.46 1.39.38 1.2.55 1.15.18 2.11 9.33 Total 1. 1. 1. Sources: Computed from census 21

Table 4.8 Percentage of sources and location of potable water in India across their place of Residence, census 21 States Northern Region Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Rajasthan Punjab Haryana Central region Uttaranchal Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Chhattisgarh Eastern Region Bihar Assam Jharkhand West Bengal Orissa Western Region Gujarat Maharashtra North East Region Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura Meghalaya Southern Region Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Kerala Tamil nadu Union Territories Goa Daman & diu Dadra & Nagar haveli Lakshadweep Pondicherry A & Nicobar Islands Delhi Chandigarh Tap 4.7 82.9 21.6 15.8 37.8 6.5 16. 1.7 5. 1.4 5.4 2.7 7. 2.8 49.1 45.5 66.5 63.3 44.3 2.6 19.3 18.1 24.4 4.3 48.5 13.9 6.5 57.2 62.8 25.2 4.4 87.3 66.3 51.6 85. Hand pump 12.8 4.2 31.3 77.6 35.7 21.4 69. 48. 59.9 79.9 46.4 29.9 69.2 31.3 22.8 19.1.3 7.8 1.6 7.1 1.5 13.9 2.2 3.9 22.9 1.1 2.3.6 23.3 42.9.2 7.8.2 33.5 11.4 Tube well 1.4.5 7.6 3.5 7.6 1.1.5 2.8 1.2 4.8 5. 2.9 1.7 28.8 5. 3.8.2 2.6 1.7 1.7 3. 13. 2.8 5.7 9.1 1.8 4.5.5 8.8 2.4. 1.5.3 5. 3.5 Well 7.1 5.3 3. 1.2 16.5 1.6 14. 35.6 28.1 13.1 27. 58.2 11.4 29.1 18.3 28.5.2 4.9 32.6 7.4 1.8 44.8 31.7 19.6 15.6 77.2 11.3 35.4 4.8 24.8 92.7.5 22.9.4. Tank, Pond, Lake 1.5.9 6.4.1.7 1.6..3.5. 7.9.4.2 2.1.6.5 1.1 1.3 1.6 28.4 4.6 1.8 6.5 River, Canal 17.3.7 1.6.2.5 2.4.1 1.7 2.2.2 5.9 3.2.4 2.9.7 1.1 1.3 9.6 2.4 2.1 18.1 3.6 5.2 Spring 7.4 1.8.1.1.2 2.8.1.7 1.7.1 1.4 1.7.7 2.5.3.8 28.6 7.6 5.6 13.4 47.4 3.1 25.1 India 24.3 43.2 5.7 22.2 1.3 1.3.9 1. Sources: Computed from census 21 1.2 1.5 1. 1.6 1....1. 1.4 1.9. 1. 1.6.7.4 1.3. 1.3.. 4.8...5.4 2.5.5 3.5. 2.9.. 2.9.. Other 11.8 3.8 1.4 1.5 1. 8.7.3.2 1.4.4 1. 1..3.5 3.3.7 1.9 2.9 1.4 1.4 4.3 1.8 2.1.8.4 1.8.9.5.2.5 2.6 3. 1.3 7.6.1 14

In the case of rural areas Table 4.7 and 4.8, in the states of India, the hand pump seems to be the major source of water. The highest percentage this regard is noted to be in the state of Bihar (8 percent) closely followed by Punjab (77.6 percent), Uttar Pradesh (69 percent), West Bengal (69.2per cent), and Chhattisgarh (6 per cent), compared to the states like Kerala (1.1 percent) and Himachal Pradesh (2.2 percent). On the other hand, tap as a source of potable water facility noted to be the highest in the rural areas Himachal Pradesh (83 per cent) followed by Uttaranchal (61 percent), Tamil Nadu (6 percent) and different picture in union territories like Pondicherry (85 per cent) and Chandigarh (85 per cent). Meanwhile, moderate extents in Gujarat (49 per cent), Karnataka(48 percent) Maharashtra (46 percent), Jammu & Kashmir (41 percent) and Andhra Pradesh (4.3 per cent), whereas such facility is observed to the lowest in the rural areas of Bihar (1 per cent) followed by Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Assam (ranging between 3-5 per cent). As noted earlier, the tube well is more prominent in the rural areas of Orissa (29 percent) than the rural parts other states, well observed to be the foremost source of potable water in rural areas of Kerala state (77 percent) as well Jharkhand (58 percent) followed by a reasonable extent in the state of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Maharashtra and Assam (ranging between 27-33 percent). In the union territories, a uniform pattern is observed in all locations. 15

Table 4.9 Percentage distributions of households by source of potable water in study are across their place of residence 21 Location HHs Tap Hand pump Tube well Well Tank Pond River Canal Spring Any other Coimbatore Within Near 39967 296 71. 76.6 4.2 5.6 1. 5.8 14.5 1.9....4..3.2.4 Away 29478 59. 15.4 8.9 12.2.4 1.8 1.2 1.1 Total 365445 74.6 6.2 6.6 11.4.1.5.3.4 Erode Within 4297 46.4 6.3 19.7 27.5....1 Near Away 32614 4778 58.5 31.5 15.7 3.6 9.6 13. 15.3 18.8..9.5 2.9.2 1.2.1 1.1 Total 386299 54.3 16.3 11.1 17..1.7.3.2 Karur Within 2612 75.9 7.9 7.7 8.4....1 Near 12978 64. 23.8 3.9 7.2..6.2.4 Away 16775 35.4 39.6 8.9 11.2. 1.3. 3.5 Total 158365 62.5 23.4 4.9 7.8..6.2.7 Tiruppur (Taluk) Within 1737 47.7 7.8 2.3 24.1....2 Near 2737 71.5 5.3 1.9 12....2.2 Away Total 2981 3288 6.4 69.1 14.3 6.3 13.8 11.6 1.7 12.5.....1.2.7.2 Tamil Nadu Within Near Away Total 989175 618349 112566 827479 61.1 65.5 31.7 6.5 18. 19.4 27.3 2.3 1.1 3.5 5.1 4.5 1.3 9.4 22.9 11.3.1 1. 6.5 1.6..3 1.6.4..3 1.7.5.3.5 3.1.9 Source: Computed from census 21 4.6 Drinking water from census It would be of interest to know to what extent the households were served by the different potable water source in the Noyyal river basin. Table 4.9 presents the household served by the potable water sources as estimated from the 21 census. Among the rural households of the Noyyal basin taluks, more than 5 percent was served by near the premises, tap, hand pump, tube well, well, tank pond, river canal and spring. 16

Data pertaining to the location of potable water source by selected Noyyal basin districts across their place of residence is provided in Table 4.8. The Table suggests that in the rural household along Noyyal river basin districts like (Coimbatore, Tiruppur taluk Erode, and Karur), as whole, potable water facilities through public taps are available to a great extent within the premises of households in the districts of karur (75.9 per cent) and Coimbatore (71 percent), and to a moderate extent in Erode (46.4) and Tiruppur taluk (47.7 percent), the average is recorded in Tamil Nadu state (61.1 percent). Further, it is pertinent to note that with regard to the difference between districts, Coimbatore district has higher potable water facilities compared with other districts considering the provision of water taps within premises (71 percent), near the premises (76.6 percent), away from the premises (59 per cent) and against in total (74.6 percent). The water tap serves as a chief source of potable water facility to the household in the 3 districts under the consideration, (range between 74-6 pe cent), whereas such facility is noted at the lower side in Erode (54.3 per cent). On the other hand, the hand pump seems to be the secondary source of water facilities in Noyyal basin districts of rural households. However, such facilities are at a lower side in Coimbatore (6.2 percent). 4.6.1 Analysis of TWAD board Re-survey data at the block level in Noyyal River A macro view about the Noyyal river basin blocks as a whole may be necessary to understand the provision made by the state, through Tamilnadu water and drainage board at the block level. The Information relating the number of district, blocks, village panchayats, source of drinking water, water quality, households, source of water and Litres per capita per day (LPCD) were obtained from the TWAD Board resurvey 26. The purpose here is to assess the status of the state induced water sources across the rural areas of Noyyal river way side villages. The creation of water sources such as hand pumps, and power pumps are the major provisions offered by Tamilnadu. In the case of the Noyyal river basin wayside blocks existing sources of drinking water, number of household and availability of LPCD are explained in this Table 4.1, the data has been obtained from TWAD. According to TWAD resurvey, the data showed that an average the source of potable water were tap, hand pump, power pump, mini power pump and House Service Connection (HSC). This was compared with households and population. In general water taps seems to be major source of potable water facility, further this table 4.1 shows that HSC are the major water source in these districts. 17