Colony Collapse Disorder and possible connection with Israeli acute paralysis virus in the domesticated honeybee, A. mellifera Word Count: 1972 Introduction Honeybees are a common insect around the world; perhaps originating in Southeast Asia, there are now over 20 000 known species (Smith et al. 2000). One of these species is the common domesticated honeybee, Apis mellifera. Best known for their production of honey, A. mellifera is an invaluable part of the agricultural industry. They are used to pollinate some 90 different crops, including almonds, apples, cucumbers and canola (Mittelstaedt 2007). In Canada, they pollinate an estimated $2 billion worth of crops, and $15 billion in the United States (Mittelstaedt 2007). In the wild, many plants depend on the honeybees pollination for survival. Since mid-2006, beekeepers across the United States have been reporting sudden losses of their colonies. Scientists have termed this pandemic Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), in reference to the emptying and collapse of a hive in a matter of days. Throughout the past year, newspapers have been publishing articles on the newest research and theories regarding CCD. Whether reporting outlandish ideas such as bees being tired from making crop circles, or current research such as the affect of mites (Milius 2007), all the articles have something in common; each discuss the predicted fallout of the economy and ecosystem if bees are wiped out. The direct impact CCD could have on the human population has kept this topic in the forefront of newspapers across the world. Media attention has given this important problem much needed research funding and political interest (Oldroyd 2007). Martin Mittelstaedt recently wrote an article for the Globe and Mail on a paper written by Cox-Foster and colleagues. Using results from a survey of microbes, the research team studied an array of organisms found in both healthy and collapsed hives. According to their research, as presented in this newspaper article, the Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) is a major contributor to the current honeybee die-off (Mittelstaedt 2007). However, it has yet to be determined if CCD is caused
exclusively by IAPV, or by a combination of the virus and other factors. To determine the role IAPV may play in Colony Collapse Disorder, it is useful to review CCD, as well as current theories and research. Commentary on the writing The author of this newspaper article, Martin Mittelstaedt, has written a clear and concise account of the current devastation of the domestic honeybee population. Although writing on a topic which most of his readers would have no prior knowledge of, his word choice and sentence structure made the science easy to understand. While retaining the original meaning of the paper, he has brought the research to a level which can be appreciated by a more general audience. There were a few aspects of the paper which caused me to read the entire article. He set the article up as if describing a mystery; starting with the problem, continuing on through the evidence and theories, and finishing with the conclusion set forth by the scientists. This held my attention, as I wanted to find out the how the mystery ended. Also, I appreciated that he gave all the important facts and information without going too deep into the science behind it. This resulted in a quick read that did not leave me confused over biological jargon or concepts. Overall, his simplistic, yet informative writing style proved to be an effective way of catching, and then holding, my attention. Commentary about the topic in the newspaper article I have been following this story of the disappearing honeybees for a few months now. Previous articles simply discussed the problem and this was one of the first I had read which described a plausible theory in full. I have always been amazed at how useful honeybees are, as their work results in a great deal of food production that we do not often think about. From what I have read, scientists are worried that their demise could possibly spell a collapse in our economy and ecosystem. The fact that such a small creature, regarded as a pest by some, could be so important, intrigued me greatly. Their survival should be of great importance to us.
Science behind the article Colony Collapse Disorder Termed by American scientist Diana Cox-Foster in 2006 (Stokstad 2007a), Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) refers to the sudden loss of an entire hive in a matter of days. Early reports of mass honeybee deaths were first reported in 2004, though it was not considered serious until 2006 when, during that winter, an estimated 23% of beekeepers reported average 45% loss of their operations (Cox-Foster et al. 2007). This is not the first time large numbers of honeybee deaths have been reported; in 1975 and 1897, apiaries also suffered great losses (Milius, 2007). However, scientists believe that with CCD, they are dealing with something previously unidentified (Milius 2007). As of March 2007, CCD had been reported in 27 states in the U.S.A (Barrionuevo 2007), with 23% of beekeepers losing up to 90% of their hives (Stokstad 2007b). CCD is characterized by a complete disappearance of adult bees in as little as seven days (Milius 2007). Any bees that remain show both a loss of appetite and motivation to work; juvenile bees and the queen bee are left unattended and die (Milius 2007). As well, neighbouring colonies, moths and other animals treat the deserted hives oddly. Instead of raiding the abandoned honey as would be expected, they leave it alone for a number of days (Milius 2007). No evidence is found of bees natural predators, such as wasps or mammals, and few, if any of the dead bees are ever located. There is no sign within the hives of anything being amiss, as food stocks are normal and there is no indication of common diseases (Oldroyd 2007). It is difficult to determine exactly how many countries have been affected by CCD. Currently confirmed only in the United States, it is debatable whether or not it has entered Canada. According to the president of the Ontario Beekeepers Associate, Danny Walker, Canada has no confirmed cases of CCD (Mittelstaedt 2007). However, an article in a Quebec journal, Les Echos, claims Quebec has suffered losses up to 40% (Molga 2007). Other countries across Europe and Asia have also reported great losses, but it is not known at this time if they are due to CCD. It appears that only common, domesticated bees are affected by CCD. Wild honeybee populations, as well as
Africanized bees, appear to be unaffected; their colonies are not showing any signs of of the disorder (Oldroyd 2007). Economic Consequences of CCD The deaths are of great concern to the agriculture industry. Approximately $15 billion stands to be lost if there are no more pollinators. Some crops, such as almonds in California, depend exclusively on commercial honeybees. This which poses an enormous problem especially for those who run a small private business dependant solely on their bees. These beekeepers ship their bees across the country as crops come into flower, renting them out as pollinators to farmers. One beekeeper expected to lose all but nine of his 1200 colonies, with the remaining colonies being too weak to work (Milius 2007). Colony Collapse Disorder threatens to devastate this sector of the agricultural industry. Current Theories and Research Shortly after CCD was first identified, a number of theories were put forth in regards to its cause. Ideas included genetically modified crops, cell phone signals, pesticides, mites, overworking and poor nutrition (Stoskstad 2007a). Some of the theories, such as cell phone signals, were ruled out after investigation. Many scientists thought a combination of the aforementioned issues could be the cause, but none could agree on anything specifically. Research continues to try pinpointing exact reasons. A new paper by Cox-Foster and colleagues suggests a virus, originally identified in Israel in 2004 (Maori et al. 2007), may be a contributing factor to the collapse. A team of entomologists and molecular biologists teamed up to run a metagenomic survey of microorganisms existing in healthy hives, CCD-affected hives and royal jelly (a secretion fed to larvae). Metagenomics is a relatively new field of genetic research, where scientists can study genetic sequences directly from samples taken in the field, and not have to rely on cultivated cultures. The organisms found in the survey were examined and identified. They found one organism, Israeli acute paralysis virus of bees (IAPV), to correlate strongly with CCD (Cox-Foster et al. 2007).
The virus was found in all CCD-affected samples, half of the royal jelly samples, and one of the twenty-one healthy samples. The research concluded that IAPV was linked to CCD, being either directly or indirectly responsible. The researchers also noted that all of the sampled hives affected with CCD had contained or intermingled with honeybees imported from Australia. None of the healthy hives had been in contact with Australian honeybees (Cox-Foster et al. 2007). To keep up with the demand for pollinators, imports of bees from Australia began in 2004, the same time the earliest reports of CCD were made. However, CCD does not seem to affect bees in Australia. A potential reason is a species of mites, Varroa destructor. These mites suppress the immune system of bees, making them more susceptible to infection from other organisms, including viruses (Calderone et al. 2002). They are not found in Australia, but are common in North America. Cox-Foster and colleagues theorize that Australian bees may have brought the IAPV with them to the United States, where it infected the already immunosuppressed bees it came in contact with. In addition, the team ruled out previously proposed theories. The use of crop pesticides are similar in the United States and Australia, eliminating that suggestion. They also ruled out the use of miticides, common in the United States for the control of Varroa mites, but not used in Australia. This idea was dismissed, as there was no difference in use of miticides between healthy and CCD-affected hives (Cox-Foster et al. 2007). The presence of IAPV was the only apparent factor distinguishing between healthy and CCD-affected hives. The research led by Cox-Foster is still on-going. Some scientists feel the paper has done no more than add confusion to the topic of CCD, as it did not directly implicate IAPV (Stokstad 2007b). Other scientists think IAPV may be just another factor in a combination of factors that lead to CCD (Stokstad 2007b). Continuing their research to obtain more concrete results, the research team is now beginning new tests to determine if CCD is caused by IAPV alone, IAPV and Varroa mites, or in conjunction with other factors.
Conclusion Colony Collapse Disorder poses an enormous threat to the United States agriculture industry, and possibly world-wide. The reported deaths of up to 90% of colonies in some apiaries jeopardize $15 billion dollars worth of crops annually. While many factors have been implicated as potential causes of CCD, a research team has recently concluded that Israeli acute parasite virus of bees is involved, although at this time, it is still unknown if it is directly or indirectly responsible. Australia appears to be the source of this virus, as all affected hives came in contact at some point with bees imported from that country. Newspapers have played a large role in keeping this story in the headlines. By continuously publishing new research and theories, this problem has gained both political attention and funding. Articles such as the one published by Martin Mittelstaedt keep important issues in the forefront, as well as maintain debate, research and funding. By making scientific discoveries accessible to a general audience, journalists can keep their readers informed of current situations which may affect them, as is the case with the article written by Mittelstaedt. His engaging article not only conveyed to the reader the seriousness of this issue, but informed readers of the newest research on Colony Collapse Disorder.
Sources Barrionuevo A. 2007 April 24. Bees vanish, and scientists race for reasons. The New York Times. Calderone N, Lin S, Kuenen L. 2002. Differential infestation of honey bee, Apis mellifera, worker and queen brood by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. Apidologie. 33:389-398. Cox-Foster D, Conlan S, Holmes E, Palacios G, Evans J, Moran N, Quan P, Briese T, Hornig M, Geiser D, Martinson V, vanengelsdorp D, Kalkstein A, Drysdale A, Hui J, Zhai J, Cui L, Hutchison S, Simons J, Egholm M, Pettis J, Lipkin I. 2007. A metagenomic survey of microbes in honey bee colony collapse disorder. Science. 318:283-287. Maori E, Tanne E, Sela I. 2007. Reciprocal sequence exchange between nonretro viruses and hosts leading to the appearance of new host phenotypes. Virology. 362:342-349. Millius S. 2007. Not-so-elementary bee mystery. Science News. 172:56. Molga P. 2007 Aug 20. La mort des abeilles met la planète en danger. Les Echos. Mittelstaedt M. 2007 Sept 7. Mysterious die-off of honeybees explained. The Globe and Mail. A:7. Oldroyd BP. 2007. What's killing american honey bees? PLoS Biology. 5: e168 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050168 Smith D, Villafuerte L, Otisc G, Palmer M. 2000. Biogeography of Apis cerana F. and A. nigrocincta Smith: insights from mtdna studies. Apidologie. 31:265-279 Stokstad, E. 2007a. Entomology: the case of the empty hives. Science. 316:970-972. Stokstad, E. 2007b. Puzzling decline of U.S. bees linked to virus from Australia. Science. 317:1304-1305.
Databases selected: Canadian Newsstand Mysterious die-off of honeybees explained Martin Mittelstaedt. The Globe and Mail. Toronto, Ont.: Sep 7, 2007. pg. A.7 Abstract (Summary) One perplexing finding is that bees in Australia don't seem to be affected by colony collapse disorder. The researchers speculated the reason might be that bees there are not infected with varroa mites, which are found throughout in North America. The mites suppress the immune system of bees, making them more vulnerable to other threats. Full Text (682 words) 2007 CTVglobemedia Publishing Inc. All Rights Reserved. A virus - first identified in Israel, then seen in Australia - may be to blame for widespread honeybee carnage in U.S., scientists say The sudden and mysterious disappearance of honeybees in the United States over the past year may be due to a virus, according to a new research paper by an international team of scientists. The pathogen, called Israeli acute paralysis virus, was detected in almost all bee hives tested during a survey of hives afflicted by what has become known as colony collapse disorder. The pathogen is rarely found in healthy hives. The discovery will likely help put to rest rampant speculation about the source of the strange collapse in U.S. bee populations. Beekeepers in the United States began noticing slight declines in bee numbers in 2004. The scale of deaths increased dramatically in the past year, with some apiaries losing up to 90 per cent of their hives. The workers in colonies of the highly social insects would disappear without a trace. The enormous scale of the destruction prompted worry that some new environmental threat might be killing useful insects. Some speculated that the missing bees might have become disoriented by the recent proliferation of radiation from cellphone towers and died while foraging for nectar. Others theorized that new genetically modified crops were poisoning the bees. But scientists who worked on the new research, which is being published in the current issue of Science Express, now believe the most likely explanation is a new infectious agent. "Our extensive study suggests that the Israeli acute paralysis may be a potential cause of colony collapse disorder," said Ian Lipkin, an epidemiologist at Columbia University. The death of bees had caused widespread alarm in the agricultural industry. Although most people associate bees with honey, the insects are far more important for their role in pollinating crops. About 90 foods, ranging from apples to cucumbers, depend on bees to ensure that fruits and vegetables develop. Any threat to bee numbers could affect the global food supply. An estimated $2-billion worth of crops in Canada depend on honeybees for pollination, and about $15-billion in the United States, where the collapse has already led to difficulties in pollinating crops. The researchers also found the virus on live bees imported into the United States from Australia, and in royal jelly samples from China. Royal jelly is the food bees produce for queens, but it is also sold as a health food for humans. The discovery of the virus has raised speculation that the United States inadvertently allowed it into the country through the import of Australian bees. This was allowed in 2004, at the urging of the agricultural industry, to boost the number of hives available for pollinating high-value crops such as almonds.
The import of the bees coincided with the first reports of unusual problems in bee colonies. All the hives infected with the virus either used Australian bees, or were stored near colonies that imported the insects. To date, Canada has had no known cases of colony collapse disorder, said Danny Walker, president of the Ontario Beekeepers' Association. He said Canada doesn't allow the importation of entire bee colonies from Australia, although it does allow apiaries to buy individual queens, which are then seeded into domestic hives. Scientists who discovered the virus, and analyzed genes of micro-organisms found in bees, said they do not know if the 1 of 2 11/22/2007 10:42 AM Document View http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/pqdweb?index=0&sid... pathogen itself causes colonies to die off, or whether it weakens the bees and makes them more susceptible to pesticides, poor nutrition and parasitic mites. The virus was first described in Israel in 2004, leading to its name. Researchers there noted that infected bees - which exhibited shivering wings and paralysis - would die just outside their hives. One perplexing finding is that bees in Australia don't seem to be affected by colony collapse disorder. The researchers speculated the reason might be that bees there are not infected with varroa mites, which are found throughout in North America. The mites suppress the immune system of bees, making them more vulnerable to other threats. Credit: ENVIRONMENT REPORTER Indexing (document details) Author(s): Martin Mittelstaedt Document types: News Section: Science Publication title: The Globe and Mail. Toronto, Ont.: Sep 7, 2007. pg. A.7 Source type: Newspaper ISSN: 03190714 ProQuest document ID: 1331789611 Text Word Count 682 Document URL: http://proquest.umi.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/pqdweb?did=1331789611&sid=1 &Fmt=3&cl ientid=12303&rqt=309&vname=pqd Copyright 2007 ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved.