VARIABLE SPEED TRANSMISSION GEARBOX, THE SOLUTION FOR YOUR DYNAMIC DRIVE PROBLEMS

VARIABLE SPEED TRANSMISSION GEARBOX, THE SOLUTION FOR YOUR DYNAMIC DRIVE PROBLEMS Ing. C.H. van den Berg 1, ir. L.J.M. Claassen 2, ir. R.A. Kruijt 3 ABSTRACT Production during dredging is ainly deterined by two factors: how uch can I cut away and how uch of the excavated soil can I transport hydraulically. We have to do with two separate processes. The excavation of the soil with the cutter installation in cobination with the fore side winch and the transportation of the soil by eans of the hydraulic installation consisting of the dredge pup, the pipe lay out and the drive of the pup. Coon eleent of these two installations is the suction line and especially the suction outh, which is placed in the cutter. The flow sucked up by the suction outh deterines the concentration of the ixture in the pipeline and the spill of the excavation process. A low flow results in a high concentration, which is positive for the hydraulic transport, but a too low flow results in an increased spill and finally in a drop of the total production. For the cutter process and the hydraulic transport autoation is developed which controls soe paraeters in such a way that the efficiency of the process is optiised. In the whole transport process several separate processes can be distinguished, whose efficiency depends on different criterion. The question about the definition of efficiency occurs. We can transport with iniu energy costs, with iniu total costs, axiu profits, iniu wear, iniu overflow losses, iniu risk for daage, etc. Depending of the choice of the optiu one or ore paraeters should be controlled. Efficient dredging requires accurate inforation on the hydraulic dredging and transport process. This publication describes the separate processes with their optiisation criterions. Where is the optiu of a process and why is that an optiu. How to realize that the working point of the pup-pipeline cobination stays in this optiu point. As a solution for the autoation of the hydraulic process this paper describes the VARIBLOCK, a gearbox ade by IHC with a continuously variable transission ratio. The gearbox controlling syste enables reactions on other process paraeters such as: vacuu, discharge pressure and dredge ixture velocity. Keywords: Dredging, slurry transport, centrifugal pup, efficiency, autoation, gearbox 1 Manager Research & Developent, MTI Holland BV., P.O. Box 8, 2960AA, Kinderdijk, The Netherlands, +31 (0)78 6910340, c.h.vandenberg@tiholland.co 2 Manager Productline Dredge Coponents, IHC Holland Parts & Services BV, P.O. Box 50, 2960 AB, Kinderdijk, The Netherlands, +31 (0)78 6910273, l.claassen@ihcps.co 3 Research engineer Research & Developent, MTI Holland BV, P.O. Box 8, 2960 AA, Kinderdijk, The Netherlands, +31 (0)78 6910528, r.a.kruijt@tiholland.co 1051

INTRODUCTION In theory the working point of a hydraulic transport syste is deterined by the intersection, in the Q-H diagra, of the pup characteristic and the pipeline characteristic. In this point there is equilibriu between available pressure fro the dredge pup and required pressure fro the pipeline syste. The pup characteristic is the cobination of the characteristic of the centrifugal pup and the characteristic of the drive. The ost iportant syste paraeter is how pressure head varies with slurry flow rate, depicted by the syste curve. Critical velocity Long distance Cavitation increased speed short distance axiu efficiency line noinal speed working point Figure 1. Working area Several paraeters have an affect on the position of this working point and a variation in one of these paraeters results in a change of the working point. Therefore a dredge pup, and also the drive, ust be capable of spanning a large nuber of potential working points, which to gather a working range. Iportant differing paraeters in the dredging process are the average grain size diaeter of the soil (coarse or fine), the length of the pipe line (short or long), the concentration of the ixture (low or high), the dredging depth (large or un deep) and the facilities on the deposit (see Figure 1). The affect of these paraeters can be iniised by autoation of the process. A process with fewer variations in the paraeters usually results in a higher average output copared to a process with larger fluctuations. Question reains about the purpose for the control and which paraeter(s) will be controlled. There are any things valuable for autoation: o working around the critical velocity; o working close to the decisive vacuu; o transporting with iniu energy costs; o transporting with iniu total costs; o transporting with axiu profits; o transporting with iniu risk for failure; o transporting with iniu wear. Usually working around a desired point requires an autoation of the drive of the dredge pup. The affects of ost of the variations inherent to dredging can be dealt with variation in the speed of the drive or only the speed of the ipeller. Optiising the dredging process deands control of the speed of the dredge pup. Continuously variation of the speed is possible by continuously variation of the transission ratio of the gearbox between drive and pup. Iportant for a variable speed drive is that it can be effected autoatically, without pup shutdown, with essentially no power or speed liitations and with relatively quick response tie. This paper describes a gearbox with a continuously variable transission ratio, aking it possible to position the working point on each desired flow-head ratio. This can be the point with iniu fuel consuption, iniu wear of the engine or dredge pup, axiu efficiency of the dredge pup and no liitations by cavitation. The gearbox controlling syste enables reactions on other process paraeters such as: vacuu and dredge ixture velocity. This revolutionary gearbox concept has been naed; IHC Variblock. Successively different processes will be discussed. 1052

DIFFERENT PROCESSES. The cutting process The output of a dredger is clearly governed by the quantity of aterial cut away, or in the case of sandy soil, dislodged per unit of tie. The dredging process starts with the disintegration of the soil by disturbing the cohesion between the particles. For loose packed, free running aterial, the flow generated by the dredge pup is enough to break the cohesion between the particles by erosion and to pick up the suspended aterial. The total flow around the suction outh has a strong affect on the production. This ethod of excavation will be used by plain suction dredgers. Figure 2. Cutting the soil with a cutter For cohesive aterial and copacted sand and gravel cutting tools like high pressure water jets, a cutter head (see Figure 2) or bucket wheel are required. Iportant in the suction process is the balance between the cutting tool production and pup capacity. Inside the hydraulic process the ixture velocity is the tool for controlling the production. The cutting tool production follows fro: Q situ a b v s 3 (1 ) /s With: a advanceent or step in ; b the vertical change in depth in ; v s the swing speed in /s and the spill. Spill is the percentage of aterial that is excavated by the cutter but not picked-up by the suction outh. The aount of spill depends on any paraeters, such as: o The height of the breach; o Step length or advanceent of cutting tool; o The rotational speed of the cutting tool; o Construction of the cutter, particularly the angle of cutter blades; o Swing speed of the cutting tool; o Soil type; o Mixture velocity around the suction outh. o Distance between suction outh and botto With a constant cutting tool production, an increase in the ixture velocity results in a lower concentration and lower spillage. A decrease in ixture velocity results in a higher concentration and higher spillage. The total aount of ixture picked-up by the suction outh consists of in situ aterial and extra water, necessary for the transportation of the solids. The production follows fro: Q situ 4 D 2 v c t 3 /s, where: Q situ is the flow in situ aterial in 3 /s; D is the diaeter of the pipe in ; v is the average ixture velocity in /s and c t is the voluetric concentration of in situ aterial. When the aount of soil excavated by the cutting tool equals the soil picked-up by the pipeline, the concentration follows fro: c t a b v 4 s D 2 (1 ) v 1053

The relation between the ixture velocity, concentration and spill is given in Figure 3 for a constant cutting tool production. 50 45 40 35 Constant cutter production 30 25 20 Production with spill 15 10 5 Critical velocity 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 ixture velocity in /s Figure 3. Miniu operating velocity Conclusions fro this figure are: o High ixture velocity at constant cutting production gives a lower concentration and a low ixture velocity results in a higher concentration but also in ore spill; o An in situ aterial concentration up to 40% is possible and also noticed in practice; o For the exaple in figure 3 the optiu velocity is around 2 /s. For lower velocities the spill increases to 100% and the pipeline production to zero. The optiu velocity can be used as a set point for the autoation of the dredge pup. Further on in this paper it will be explained why we prefer a low velocity. Input for the autoation is the ixture velocity and the ixture concentration. Maxiizing of the concentration will be realized by reducing the ixture velocity till a liit velocity has been reached. In practice this will be achieved by speed control of the dredge pup. Critical velocity The critical velocity is the iniu velocity required to transport a solid aterial through a pipe line without any particle deposition. This eans that the particles in the ixture reain in suspension. Figure 4. Depot in a pipe line If the velocity falls below this critical value, sedientation occurs in the pipeline indicating that the velocity has becoe sub-critical. The oent the velocity is decreased too uch, all the solids entering the pipeline will deposit, resulting in an ultiate hold-up and the pipeline starts to clog. (see Figure 4). It is, of course, evident that one should never choose such a low velocity that the pipe line threatens to block, causing stagnation so that the dredge aster feel copelled to pup extra dilution water, thus haring the production. 1054

The critical velocity is deterined by a nuber of factors, aong which are the pipe diaeter, the nature of the soil being transported (average grain size and grain size distribution, shape and density of the grain), the density of the ixture and the length and slope of the straight section of the delivery pipe. The saller the argin between the critical velocity and the actual velocity of the ixture, the lower is the resistance in the pipeline. This iplies that the resistance is inial at a velocity which lies just above the critical value and in this respect it is attractive to work at lower velocities, while low resistance eans also low Specific Energy Consuption (SEC). Disadvantage of working around the critical velocity is the occurrence of sliding and stationary beds of particles. Substantial pipe abrasion ay occur in the sliding bed regie and low transport efficiencies are characteristic for both situations. A low transport efficiency results in a reduction of the transport concentration and therefore in a lower production. For this reason slurry pipelines ust be designed and operated at a safe argin above the critical velocity, the so-called iniu operating velocity. 2000 1800 1600 Resistance for ixture 1400 1600 kg/ 3 1200 1000 800 600 400 critical velocity 1400 kg/ 3 1200 kg/ 3 200 water 0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 velocity in /s Figure 5. Critical velocity in a pipe Ø 700 In Figure 5 the iniu operating velocity is given for oderately coarse sand (average diaeter of 0.236) in a pipe with a diaeter of 700. Fro this figure it will be clear that for this aterial, velocities below 4 /s can result in probles. The critical velocity for oderately coarse sand (about 4 /s) is also given in Figure 3, and this velocity is higher than the optiu velocity of 2 /s. For this situation the critical velocity is the liiting factor in the hydraulic transport and the axiu attainable concentration is liited to about 27 % aterial in situ. For finer aterial the critical velocity will be lower and, according to Figure 3, the concentration can be ore. Input for the autoation will be the axiu value of the critical velocity and the optiu velocity. Working around the critical velocity eans working with a nearly constant flow, which depends on the type of soil. When the soil is constant for a long period it is possible to calculate the critical velocity and use this value as input for the autoation. By variable soil type it is possible to use a grain size estiator, which is based on up-to-the-inute easured data fro the dredging process, and to use this estiator for the calculation of the critical velocity. In practice, keeping the ixture velocity constant will be achieved by speed control of the dredge pup. Constant flow is also iportant for the feed to a processing plant. The dredging capacity of the suction dredger ust be adjusted to the axiu capacity of the controlling plant and the ore constant the flow the higher will be the efficiency of screens and other separation tools. Specific Energy Consuption. Another iportant process paraeter is the cost for energy, and especially the cost per 3 transported aterial. This is the so-called Specific Energy Consuption (SEC). The required energy consuption follows fro the pipeline resistance ( p) and the ixture flow (Q). By using a generalized odel for the pipe line resistance, the energy consuption follows fro: 1 2 2 3 P p Q = v Dl v c1 v (kw) 2 4 Where: p is the total pipe line resistance, Q flow in 3 /s, is total resistance factor for the pipe line, is the ixture density in kg/ 3, v ixture velocity in /s, D l pipe line diaeter in and c 1 is constant. 1055

The production on solids follows fro: Q D v c v ( /s) 2 w w 3 s 2 4 s w s w and the SEC can be defines as : 3 P c1 v s w c3 2 kw J SEC v or Q c2 v w w 1 /s 3 3 Where: s density solids, w is density water and c 2 and c 3 are constant. Conclusion fro this forula is that the SEC is inial at lowest velocity and decreases with the concentration. In practice pipe line resistance is ore coplicated than assued in the forula, resulting in a SEC just above the critical velocity. 180 Durand-Condolios D = 0.65 en = 1300 kg/3 900 160 140 d=1.33 vcrit SEC 800 700 120 d=0.45 600 100 d=0.236 p 500 80 400 60 40 d=0.103 300 200 20 100 0 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 ixture velocity in /s Figure 6. Specific Energy Consuption For the deterination of the pipeline resistance and the Specific Energy Consuption calculations are carried out for four different types of soil with a ixture density of 1300 kg/ 3 and a discharge distance of 100. The results fro the calculations are given in Figure 6, together with the critical velocity according to MTI. The difference between the deposition-liit velocity and the velocity of iniu friction loss is very sall in the fine slurry flow. The operation is safe enough and the SEC the lowest at a velocity just above the critical velocity. In the coarse flow the difference becoes bigger, but the conclusion is the sae. Working just above the critical velocity results in a iniized SEC while, caused by the low ixture velocity also wear is iniized. For a given power the aount of sand one gets through a pipe line is greatest at this optiu velocity. The secret of successfully transporting solids by the hydraulic ethod lies in using a iniu of energy and a iniu velocity, just sufficient to achieve the desired result, but no ore than that, in order to keep the operating costs as low as possible. The optiu velocity is the input for the autoation. For working around SEC the sae ethod of autoation can be used as was suggested for working around the critical velocity. In practice, keeping the ixture velocity constant will be achieved by speed control of the dredge pup. Maxiu profit. What happens when not alone the costs are iportant but also the profits? Depending on the price for one 3 sand it is worth considering transporting with a higher velocity than the critical or optiu velocity (for SEC). If in the total exploitation of the slurry installation costs for energy are of inor iportance and also ore wear is acceptable, a higher ixture velocity can result in ore production and therefore in ore return on investent. Higher productions becoe also iportant in the situation that the copletion date of a project threatened to exceed. Of course under the condition that ore aterial will be excavated by the cutting tool. When this is not possible a higher velocity results only in a reduction of the concentration and ore energy consuption per 3 aterial. The cost distribution for a trailing suction hoper dredger is given in Figure 7. The fixed costs, which are independent of the ixture velocity, (capital, crew, insurance and incidental expenses) aount 60% of the total costs and the variable, velocity related costs such as repair and aintenance and fuel (or other energy source), 1056

aount 40%. These ratios are only valid for a certain production of the dredger. A larger production results in a larger percentage for repair and aintenance and fuel. incidental expenses 12% costs estiate for a 1500 3 TSHD insurance 3% Capital costs 30% crew 15% fuel 17% Figure 7. Distribution of costs repair & aintenance 23% P 2 rev p t 3600 0 4 D v c A v /h The revenues per hour follow fro: 3 3 Where: P rev is the revenue in /hour, D is pipe line diaeter, v ixture velocity, c t the voluetric concentration of solids, / 3 is the aount got for 1 3 aterial in situ and A 0 is constant. The costs follow fro: C C C C A v A v /h 3 3 costs fixed rep& ain fuel fixed rep& ain 1 fuel 2 Where: o C costs are the total costs for the transport installation in /h; o C fixed are the costs for capital + crew + insurance + incidental expenses in /h; o C rep&ain are the costs for repair and aintenance in /h, consisting of the unit price rep&ain in /h, A 1 is constant and v is the ixture velocity o C fuel are the costs for energy in /h, consisting of fuel as the price per unit of energy and A 2 is constant Figure 8. Replacing an ipeller For siplification it is assued that repair and aintenance are very strong correlated to the wear (~v 3 ). In practice the situation is ore coplicated while the costs for repair and aintenance consist of the costs for spare parts, cost of labour and downtie (see figure 8). Costs for fuel are correlated to power or energy consuption (~v 3 ). For a certain situation the fixed costs ( fixed ) are about 60% of the total costs, repair and aintenance ( rep&ain.a 1.v 3 ) about 23% and fuel ( fuel.a 2.v 3 ) about 17%. The optiu situation is where the difference between revenue and costs (is profit) has reached its axiu value. 3 3 ax rev costs 0 fixed rep& ain 1 fuel 2 This follows fro: 3 P C A v A v A v /h 1057

ax The axiu follows fro: 3 v A 3 A v 3 A v =0 2 2 0 rep& ain 1 fuel 2 /h or : v A 0 3 3 A 3 A rep& ain 1 fuel 2 /s This relation is given in Figure 9. This figure shows that with increasing price for 1 3 solid the optiu velocity for obtaining a high profit is also increasing. profit versus costs profit optiu costs increasing price for 1 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ixture velocity in /s Figure 9. Optiu velocity for axiu profit It will be clear that previous calculations are indicative. The idea that higher prices for one 3 perit higher ixture velocities is iportant. To find this optiu it is necessary to ake a good exploitation analysis fro the dredger so that the costs as a function of the velocity are well known. Working around the optiu velocity eans working with a variable flow, which depends on the type of soil and the aount got for 1 3 solid. When the soil is constant for a long period it is possible to calculate the optiu velocity and use this value as input for the autoation. By variable soil type it is possible to use a grain size estiator, which is based on easuring data fro the dredging process, and to use this estiator for the calculation of the optiu velocity. In practice, controlling the ixture velocity will be achieved by speed control of the dredge pup. Cavitation in the pup. Previous exaples are related to the lower liit of the velocity in the syste. Figure 1 shows that there is also a upper liit at high flow rates, the flow rate corresponding to the decisive vacuu of the puping installation and suction pipe concerned. This liitation is called the cavitation liit and flow rates in excess of this ust be avoided. Figure 10. Boiling water cavitation in an ipeller At a certain velocity, and depending on any other paraeters, the static pressure on the suction side of the pup falls below the saturated vapour pressure of the transported liquid and the liquid starts to boil (see Figure 10). At the onset of cavitation, the discharge pressure deviates fro the original Q-H curve. Increasing 1058

cavitation, the so-called fully developed cavitation, leads to a further grow of the vapour bubbles and the bubbles odify the flow patterns in the syste. Under these conditions losses increase and perforance rapidly deteriorates. Eventually the cavities or cavitation bubbles becoe large enough to choke the passageway and the pup chokes. The solids yield and the discharge pressure deteriorate and the flow rate rapidly drops to zero. The vapour bubbles are entrained in the flow and carried to the ipeller, where the pressure increases above the saturated pressure, causing the bubbles to iplode abruptly. This process ay be accopanied by hissing and rattling, severe vibration, fairly heavy shocks and other irregularities. Furtherore cavitation causes wear and daage to the pup parts, especially the ipeller (see Figure 11). Cavitation can be considered as the upper liit of the hydraulic transportation process. Figure 11. Ipeller with cavitation erosion The effect of cavitation on the transport process results in a liitation of the axiu flow and/or density. At high flows a point of intersection between noral pup and pipe line characteristics no longer exists. Working at the original working point is not longer possible. Cavitation is related to the pressure drop over the suction line. This also influences production. This dependence can be deonstrated with the aid of a siple suction forula: Where : o 1 2 vac v w g D g ( D a) kpa 2 Vac is the total pressure difference over the suction line in kpa. Vac depends on the dynaic losses, related to the velocity and the density of the ixture, and the static head related to the suction depth and the position of the dredge pup. The static head is the pressure difference between the water colun outside the dredger, which depends on the dredging depth (D), and the ixture colun in the suction line, which depends on the dredging depth (D) and the position of the pup in relation to the waterline (a). o is the total resistance coefficient for the suction line, consisting in losses for acceleration, entrance losses, straight pipes, bends and hoses. o is the density of the ixture in kg/ 3 ; o v average velocity of the ixture in the pipe line in /s; o w is the density for water (fresh are salt) in kg/ 3 ; o D is the total actual dredging depth in ; o a is the position of the centre of the dredge pup in relation to the waterline in. The liit of the process occurs when the pressure drop over the suction line equals the decisive vacuu of the pup. The decisive vacuu is deeed to be the vacuu at which the anoetric head differs 5% fro the noral anoetric head at the sae pup speed. For a certain value of the decisive vacuu (say 80 kpa) calculations are carried out for a dredger with a suction diaeter of 700, dredging depth 18 and the pup on waterline and 3 below waterline. The soil is oderately coarse sand with d = 0.236. Fro the previous forula one can calculate the relation between velocity and density. The production on solids follows fro: Q s 4 D v ( /s) 2 w 3 s w 1059

The results are given in Figure 12, including the restrictions caused by the critical velocity and the cutter production. 4000 3500 3000 2500 Critical velocity A Maxiu cutting production Hopper filled Liited cutting production 2000 B 1500 1000 500 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 velocity in /s Figure 12. Restrictions caused by cavitation The curved line in the figure is the axiu production, liited by cavitation. Realization of the axiu production is possible by working at the decisive vacuu of the pup and then to reduce the velocity of the ixture till the axiu production has been reached. Keep this velocity as constant as possible. It is possible that the critical velocity is larger than the velocity for axiu production. In this situation the critical velocity will be the liiting factor in the process (point A in Figure 12). Figure 12 deonstrates very clear the affect of the position of the pup in relation to the water line. Only 3 eter difference in the position of the pup-inlet results in a theoretical difference in production of about 80% When the production will be liited to the cutting production then the axiu production is always around the critical velocity (point B in Figure 12). Reasons for working around Best Efficiency Point. Fro experience with pups it is known that for each design only one point exists on its characteristic curve where the efficiency is at its axiu. The design characteristics for both perforance and reliability are optiized around this point designated as the Best Efficiency Point of the pup and ostly it will be the design point of the whole transport installation (see figure 13). Hopper epty fine coarse working point long, coarse BEP long, fine working range short, coarse short, fine pipeline characteristic pup characteristic flow Figure 13. Variation around the Best Efficiency Point Soeties a pup operates at a capacity slightly above or below the Q BEP. It is unusual to operate continuously at a capacity at which the efficiency is uch below the axiu value. It is coon practice to position the point of intersection between pup characteristic and pipe line characteristic as close as possible to the Q BEP or to the flow rate with axiu efficiency for that speed. For that situation the flow through the pup is optial. The flow through the ipeller and diffuser is unifor and free of separation, and is well controlled. The ixture enters the ipeller vanes and casing diffuser in a shock less anner and the hydraulic efficiency is axiu. 1060

When it is possible to control all the process paraeters such as grain size, fixed discharge distance, flow and concentration then it is also possible to optiize the pup and pipeline cobination. This can occur during slurry transport with a feeder and slurry preparation. During dredging there is always a variation in the soil, the dredging depth, the ixture concentration and the discharge distance. Working away fro the design point is inherent to dredging. Variations in soil, dredging depth, concentration and discharge distance results in a variation in the pipe line resistance and in the available pup pressure. The consequence of these variations is a change in the point of intersection between pup characteristics and pipeline characteristic (see Figure 13). A dredger can work on a short or a long distance, in fine or coarse aterial and a pup can work at different speeds. This last is usual during trailing and discharging of a trailing suction hopper dredger. The result of these variations is a shift fro the working point and the working point does not longer coincide with the design point. What are the consequences fro working away of the BEP? Generally, the ipeller, the diffuser or casing and/or the volute tongue or cutwater are designed for the sae design flow rate. The flow rate for the design of the ipeller inlet ay be greater or less because for the design of the inlet also recirculation and cavitation has often to take into account. As soon as the operating flow rate departs fro the design flow rate, variations of the fluid flow incidence at the leading edge of the blades occur. Figure 14. Variation in velocity Off-design conditions are first of all characterized by isatching between inlet blade angles and local fluid flow angles. As it can be seen in figure 14, the relative velocity at inlet becoes ore and ore tangential as the flow rate is reduced. For a flow rate equal to Q BEP the entry of the flow into the ipeller is shock less, the relative inlet velocity vector is tangential to the first eleent of the ipeller blade. For a flow rate Q<Q BEP ipingeent on the leading face of the vane takes place and eddies occur on the trailing face of the vane. When the flow rate becoes to low reverse flow or recirculation occurs in soe parts of the pup, resulting in a reduction of the available net positive suction head (NPSH) at the vane inlet. Keeping the velocity constant gives the possibility to work with axiu suction properties of the pup. This eans less cavitation erosion and higher productions for situation where the decisive vacuu is the liit in the process. Centrifugal and vertical pups typically exhibit a iniu vibration near the BEP, with increases at higher and lower capacities. The vibrations spectra are doinated by haronics of the rotation frequency (depends on nuber of blades). For pups with a drive input above about 1000 kw and high specific speed, however, the forces due to flow recirculation at the ipeller entry ay, even at 25 to 35 % of the BEP flow rate, be so great that excessive vibration is excited in the pup and pipe work. Higher iniu flow rates are necessary for such pup sizes. For a flow rate Q>Q BEP ipingeent on the trailing face of the vane takes place and eddies occur on the leading face of the vane. The change in flow has consequences for the perforance of the pup. Misatching induces additional losses which are referred to as incidence losses and they affect the hydraulic perforance of the pup: efficiency, total head, NPSHR, radial ipeller load and wear. For flows around the BEP, the NPSHR has its iniu value. For flows above the BEP, the NPSHR sharply increases with the flow rate as a result of the increase in the velocities and the pressure distribution effects at ipeller inlet. There is also a liitation for the axiu flow rate. The highest velocity in a pup usually occurs in the throat area of the volute. At high flows the velocity head ay constitute ost of the total discharge head. In such cases, the static head ay drop below the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid, resulting in cavitation in the 1061

outlet of the pup. Cavitation reduces the pup head and, by cavitation erosion, it reduces the life tie of the pup. Suarizing: extree high as well as extree low flow rates have a negative effect on the existence of cavitation in a pup. In pups with volute casings unbalanced radial forces caused by non-unifor static pressure distribution around the outlet circuference of the ipeller act on the ipeller at part loads and over loads. Unifority is only possible when there is a free vortex velocity distribution in the volute i.e. when the spiral flow fro the ipeller coincides with that of the volute spiral. This occurs only at the BEP and the non-unifority increases strongly at off-design conditions. Radial ipellerload Figure 15. Variation in radial ipeller load The steady ean radial load or radial thrust acting on the ipeller is characterized by a agnitude and an angular direction that is changing as the operating flow rate changes. The unsteady radial thrust can be caused by geoetrical tolerances of the ipeller and pressure fluctuations due to flow separation at part load. In figure 15 the curve for the radial load is given for the noinal pup speed. The ean radial thrust is ainly dependent of the type of diffuser or volute and is least in the region of the design point (BEP) and increases when the flow is increased or decreased (blue line in Figure 15, which is valid for one speed). It should be noted that there is a large increase in the thrust when Q>Q BEP. For Q<Q BEP the direction of the force is upwards and for Q>Q BEP the direction of the force is downwards. The steady radial thrust is not zero at BEP. The radial forces are of course transitted through the shaft to the bearings and an increase of the radial thrust ay lead to rapid wear of the bearings and failure of the shaft due to fatigue. Steady radial forces results in fully reversed stresses in a rotating shaft which ay be increased by stress concentrations at changes in shaft cross section. Sustained operation at extreely low or extreely high flows needs the installation of a heavier shaft. It is the anufacturer s responsibility to define flow liits where the alternating stresses in the shaft are less than the fatigue life is acceptable. Suarizing: The ean radial load is least in the region of the BEP and increases when the flow is increased of decreased, so control fro the velocity can increase the life tie of the bearings and the shaft. The design point of a pup is known and the variation of this point in relation to the speed is also known (affinity laws). This inforation can be used as input for the pup controller. Centrifugal pups for the dredging and ining industry are designed to resist the dynaic contact of particles and fragents on the wearing surfaces. During this contact sall parts of the construction aterial are cut away, this process is called abrasive erosion. The rate of wear is related to the nature of the ixture being puped and the aterials of construction of the pup. Iportant paraeters are the grain size of the abrasive particles and the velocity of the particles or flow rate of the ixture. An iportant factor for the wear rate in a pup is the operating point on the Q-H characteristics of the pup. Miniu wear will occur at or near the design point (BEP), when flow angles atch the blade and cut-water angles. This results in low ipact angles-provided that the solid trajectories follow the liquid flow paths- and also less turbulence due to flow separation. At partial or over capacities the flow will not tolerate the abrupt deflection at the tongue and severe energy losses and wear are created at the vicinity of the casing throat and on the ipeller. 1062

Figure 16 shows the draatic effect of local wear. The ean wall thickness of the pup is decreased a little, except one spot in the pup outlet. As a result of a local eddy a hole is drilled in the pup casing aking the pup unusable. Left figure for too high flows and right for too low flows. Figure 16. Local wear for too high and too low flow Working around the BEP will increase the life tie of any coponents in a centrifugal pup, e.g. the bearings, the pup shaft. On previous pages several work situations are discussed where control of the flow or velocity will be profitable. These circustances are: o Working at the critical velocity for saving energy and for working at iniu costs; o Working at a variable velocity with the purpose to axiize the profits; o Working at iniu velocity and decisive vacuu to axiize the production of an installation which as liited by the vacuu of the pup; o Working around the BEP for increased life tie of any coponents in a centrifugal pup, e.g. the bearing, the pup shaft, pup ipeller and casing. CONTROLLING THE WORKING POINT. Different solutions are possible for controlling the working point of a pup-pipe line cobination; soe are static and other dynaic. Static eans that a new working point has been created for a longer tie, it is a stepby-step variation and adaptations are peranent. Continuously variation is not possible. Static solutions are: Reducing the ipeller diaeter. Reduction of the diaeter is a eans whereby the pressure head, at constant speed, of an existing ipeller can be lowered (Figure 17 left). The bigger the correction, the ore pup efficiency suffers fro adaptation. The advantage of this ethod is a diesel engine working again in the full torque point and at a noinal speed, but the disadvantage is that the ipeller can only be used at a short distance. It is a peranent solution and akes this ethod not suitable for a dredger with regularly changing discharge distances and outputs. constant constant power power D no 90 % 80 % A B 1 2 3 A A A flow flow Figure 17. Effect diaeter reduction and the use of a 3-speed gearbox on the working point Use of a gearbox with different transission ratios. By using of a 2 or 3-speed gearbox it is possible to turn the pup at different speeds without changing the speed of the diesel engine (Figure 17 right). This gearbox is between the diesel engine and the dredge pup and has the possibility to change the transission ratio 1063

step by step. The disadvantage of this transission is that the ratio cannot be changed during puping, it needs pup shutdown. An iediately reaction on variations in the dredging process is not possible. Changing the ipeller by an ipeller with different nuber of blades. Fitting an ipeller with a saller nuber of blades results in a lower pressure head and in a new point of intersection between pup- and pipe line characteristic for a longer tie. The results are siilar to the results with the reduced ipeller; accept the efficiency which is ore for an ipeller with changed nuber of blades. An advantage of a saller nuber of blades is that the passage is soewhat larger, with the result that the pup is less susceptible to blockage by debris and large pieces of stone. The disadvantage is that the ipeller can only be used at a short distance; it is a peranent solution and akes this ethod not suitable for a dredger with regularly changing discharge distances and outputs. Application of a booster station results in a new working point with ore head and flow. This is a very expensive solution and not suitable for a dredger with regularly changing discharge distances and outputs. More flexible ethods for controlling the working point are: Changing the pipe line resistance by using a variable restriction in the discharge pipe. For this solution the used power is always ore than for the unrestricted pipe line, the restriction will be subject to wear and a sall bore in the pipe line increases the risk for blockage of the pipe by stones. This ethod is not suitable for a dredger with regularly changing discharge distance and outputs. Changing the speed of the drive. Changing the speed of the drive (see Figure 18 left), especially when it concerns a diesel engine results in a reduction of the available power and the otor works in an area of lower efficiency. For ost diesel engines speed variations are very liited, depending of the type of diesel (degree of super charging and the nature of the supercharger). A reduction of the speed results in a reduction of the flow and the pressure head. The working point changes fro A to B. Within sall variations of the pipe line resistance constant flow control is possible by varying the speed of the diesel. constant power constant power 100 % A 90 % 80 % A noral B C B fuel control rod flow flow Figure 18. Effect speed variation and power variation on the working point. Changing the axiu fuel injection. Reducing the fuel injection (see Figure 18 right) by liiting the fuel control rod of the engine will prevent ore fuel being injected to the diesel. In the pup characteristic it looks if the pup is driven by a saller diesel engine with the sae speed. This akes it possible to work in the constant torque range, which is ore stable than the governor range, while the flow variations are saller. Disadvantage is the lower flow and production to the original fuel injection. More efficient ethods for controlling the working point are: Application of a pup driven by a frequency controlled electric otor. Many different drive systes are available on the arket and the choice depends on the requireents of the process in ters of speed control, process-autoation, environent of the otor, etc. The general pup characteristic consists of a constant speed area, a constant power area and a constant torque area. The so-called electric shaft is flexible but, in general the drive requires a larger capital investent in coparison to a direct drive and the additional loss of efficiency is about 10-15 %. This is caused by the losses in the extra gearbox and the losses in the generator, electric power transission syste and electric otor. Special deands on the vessel and the crew ake this solution ore coplex. Use of electronically controlled diesel engines. Modern diesel engines with coputer controlled fuel injection have ore or less the sae possibilities as an electric drive. The pup characteristic has also a constant speed, a constant power and a constant torque area, but the range over which the diesel could be controlled is relative oderately. Only a sall percentage of the speed regulation is available with constant 1064

power, and an even saller portion with constant torque. When the diesel engine is also driving other coponents, such as hydraulic pups, generators, etc. they are also affected by the changes in speed, which can result in a variation in the RPM of e.g. the cutter or the winch. Application of a variable speed drive. Variation of the speed of the drive or only the speed of the ipeller will be the ost iportant paraeter for optiising the dredging process. Most efficient ethod for controlling the speed of the ipeller is possible by continuously variation of the transission ratio of the gearbox between drive and pup. An acceptable ethod of varying pup speed with a constant speed prie over has been the fluid coupling. A fluid coupling can transfor the constant input speed of the diesel engine to a variable output by changing the aount of oil in the working circuit of the coupling. Variation of the volue of oil results in a variation of the slip between the two coupling parts. The slip is a easure of the inefficiency of the transission; at off-design conditions the efficiency is rather low. Many long pipe lines are equipped with a variable speed drive while this drive is superior in efficiency, life expectancy and availability than constant speed drives. One of the ore efficient ethods to control the working point is the use of the IHC VARIBLOCK IHC S CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE SPEED VARIBLOCK. The operation principle of the VARIBLOCK is the advanced developent of a proven concept. The heart of the VARIBLOCK is a special planetary gearwheel syste that is driven by the diesel engine (see Fig. 19). Figure 19. Control syste (left) with planetary gearwheel syste (right). Between diesel and planetary gearwheel a conventional gear transission can be used. Attached to the diesel engine is a hydraulic pup with variable volue. This pup feeds a hydraulic otor that also drives the planetary gear wheel syste. When the volue fro the hydraulic pup is zero, the dredge pup will have the noinal speed and this situation is coparable with the old full torque point of the conventional drive. The sun wheel is driven at a constant speed and the annulus will be stationary in this situation. The power flow in the hydraulic syste is now equal to zero and the efficiency of the syste has its axiu value. By increasing the volue of the hydraulic pup, the speed of the hydraulic otor will increase. The speed of the sun wheel is constant again and the annulus rotates in the sae direction of the rotation of the sun wheel and the output shaft. The total power is split in a power through the gears and the hydraulic power to the annulus. Both power-flows coe together in the planet carrier and flow fro there to the ipeller. The speed of the dredge pup is increased by this action. By reversing the volue of the hydraulic pup, the speed of the hydraulic otor will reverse. The speed of the sun wheel is constant again. The annulus rotates reverse to the direction of the rotation of the sun wheel. The annulus transports energy fro the gear and via the hydraulic syste this energy is supplied again to the diesel engine. The fixed unit in the hydraulic syste operates now as a pup and the variable unit as a otor, they have changed their functions. The speed of the dredge pup is decreased by this action. It will be clear that each speed can be realized by varying the volue of the pup. This speed is added to (or subtracted fro when turning in the opposite direction.) the speed of the diesel engine, resulting in a higher (or lower) speed of the dredge pup. This at constant speed of the diesel engine! 1065

The power taken by the hydraulic pup is returned by the hydraulic otor. Therefore, no energy, except for efficiency loss, will be wasted. As an exaple: a pup power of 1000 kw needs about 100 kw for the hydraulic syste at axiu speed variation. Suppose that the hydraulic losses are 30% axiu, which eans 30 kw is lost due to the hydraulic drive. With about 2% loss on gear transission, the total losses are 50 kw, or 5% axiu. The efficiency will decrease as the variation is increased. An increase or decrease of output speed of 15% will have an overall efficiency of 94%.The highest efficiency is obtained by rotating the transission at its design speed. As the VARIBLOCK hydraulically regulates only a part of the shaft power, the total efficiency of the gearbox transission will still between 92-94%, uch higher than other variable speed transissions. The diesel engine can be of the siplest stationary kind, because it will give its full power at optiu speed. 1000 900 800 700 constant speed high resistance A design point constant power 600 500 400 300 variable ratio gearbox ti B low resistance variblock 200 constant 100 critical torque velocity 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 flow in 3 /s Figure 20. Pup characteristic with a Variblock Pup characteristic for ediu fine sand and a ixture density of 1200 kg/ 3. The dotted line is for a conventional direct drive with only a constant torque and a constant speed area. The drawn lines are for a pup driven by a Variblock. The pup characteristic consists of a constant torque, a constant power and a constant speed area. Copared to the conventional drive it its clear fro the figure that for a short discharge distance (low resistance) the flow, and thus the production, with a VARIBLOCK, is uch ore than for the conventional drive. Only in a sall area around the full torque point the flow with the VARIBLOCK is saller. More iportant is the effect in the high speed range. With the VARIBLOCK there is ore pressure available to transport the ixture with a flow above the critical velocity. This eans that the sae production can be realized at greater discharge distances and, aybe save a booster station. Suppose one wants to work at constant velocity. Reasons can be a iniu SEC, axiu density, constant feed to a processing plant, etc. Suppose point A is the working point. This working point lies on the constant speed area of the conventional drive and is realized with the VARIBLOCK by varying the ratio of the gearbox. Reducing the resistance results with the conventional drive in a flow of about 1.1 3 /s, uch above the critical velocity. With the VARIBLOCK it is possible to change the gearbox ratio in such a way that the speed of the dredge pup is reduced till a lower value With the VARIBLOCK it is possible to reduce the speed of the pup in such a way that the pup arrives at work point B. This can be realized with constant speed of the diesel engine. It is possible to realize each working point without changing the speed of the diesel engine! The diesel engine runs always in the governor range. After that the gearbox was tested in the workshop also a test under working conditions on board of a dredger of the Dutch dredging contractor BOSKALIS was carried out. This test was very successful. A pressure of 950 kpa instead of the noinal 650 kpa could be achieved by speeding up the dredge pup. The results of the tests have been so positive that BOSKALIS ordered also VARIBLOCK s for the hopper dredgers Waterway and Coastway. Both dredgers are equipped with a VARIBLOCK that transfers a axiu of 1500 kw during dredging and a axiu of 2760 kw during puping ashore. The field experience with IHC Variblocks has shown that the syste is very robust and easy to aintain. Everybody involved with dredging practice knows 1066

that equipent, and en, operate in a rough environent. The VARIBLOCK has proved to be ore than a atch for these conditions. o o o o o o CONCLUSIONS Controlling a process is iportant but ore iportant is the reason why and how; The VARIBLOCK can control every process while the diesel engine runs in the constant speed area; The VARIBLOCK akes it possible to use a direct driven pup by using a diesel engine; With the VARIBLOCK it is not necessary to adjust ipeller diaeter for different lengths; The VARIBLOCK is for ediu discharge distance a good alternative for a booster station. Erosion of pup and pipe is reduced with downward speed regulation, thereby increasing coponent life and aintenance intervals; REFERENCES Berg, C.H. van den, et all. The hydraulic transport of highly concentrated sand-water ixtures using large pups and pipeline diaeters. 14 th International Conference Slurry Handling and Pipeline Transport Hydrotransport 14, Maastricht 1999 Berg, C.H. van den Berg and Muijen, H. van, Velocity effects on the hydraulic transportation of sand and gravel through a pipeline. Aufbereitungstechnik 1-2-2005 Berg, C.H. van den, et all, High efficiency cutter special pups; CEDA 2005 Berg, C.H. van den, et all. Centrifugal pups driven by a variable speed transission gearbox, CHIDAC 2006. Berg, C.H. van den, Slurry Transport, Production with a cutter suction dredger. EMC Alluvial & Marine Mining 2004, Delft Technical University lecture notes. Heeringa, T, Engineering around a hydraulic controlled gearbox, Bath workshop on power transission & otion control, PTMC 2004 1067

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