Career Mobility and Branding in the Civil Service An Empirical Study

Career Mobility and Branding in the Civil Service An Empirical Study Jack K. Ito Faculty of Administration University of Regina Regina, Saskatchewan Canada Phone: (306) 585-4714 Fax: (306) 585-4805 e-mail: jack.ito@uregina.ca

1 Introduction The study is concerned with career mobility and branding in the public service. It is the result of a partnership between IPMA, TMP Consulting, and the Faculty of Administration at the University of Regina. The contributors to the project and to the paper are Valerie Hill and Darren Evans of TMP Consulting and Ray Deck, IPMA Canada. An earlier version of this paper was part of a presentation at the IPMA meetings in Ottawa in October, 2002. Branding The concept of brand evokes emotional and rational expectations of a product or service, and provides information that distinguishes the brand from its competitors (e.g. the Nike logo in sports products). The brand concept, extended to human resource practices, enables organizations to differentiate themselves from their competitors in the labour market. For example 3 M supports its innovation strategy through such HR practices as allowing individuals to devote up to 15% of their time on their own projects. These practices, publicized through the media, facilitate recruiting applicants attracted by such work environments. Moreover, organizations may seek to change public perceptions about the reality of their human resource practices and the nature of the work environment. To be effective, branding must reflect the reality of the work environment and HR policies, otherwise, the contradictions may be viewed as unethical and serve to discourage potential applicants. The creation of an appropriate image will become more important to the recruitment and retention process, especially over the next several years as the baby boomer generation approaches retirement, and demand exceeds the available labour pool. The need for individual mobility within the organization is growing, and, the responsibility for career planning has shifted from organization to employee, a philosophy in which job security resides in one s own career resilience one s ability to adapt to changing circumstances. Thus, it is important to understand how employees perceive mobility issues within the organization (such as their career resilience) and underlying causes, in order to meet individual growth aspirations as well to meet organizational needs. The opportunity for career mobility, rooted in organizational reality, may be a strong attraction for applicants and help to retain employees. Some answers to the following questions may help organizations in the public sector to improve the career opportunities of their staff and to help develop a brand strategy to enhance the effectiveness of recruitment and retention policies. What are some positive aspects of civil service careers that could be used to attract applicants and to retain existing staff? What are some characteristics of careers and mobility patterns in the civil service? How can organizations improve the opportunities for meaningful careers? The study This report is based on the initial results of an on-going study of career mobility in the public and private sectors. The University of Regina Ethics Review Board has approved the study. As the sample size is still quite small, the interpretation of the results must be made with caution. Many of the findings will simply reinforce the results of previous studies or provide empirical support for intuitive impressions or casual observations. By reinforcing common sense such empirical support contributes to a more rational decision making process. On the other hand, some findings may shed some light on issues that may have appeared confusing or may counter conclusions based on intuitive impressions or casual observations.

2 Sample characteristics The sample is drawn from technical, professional, and managerial staff, where recruitment and retention pose the most concern, from several Government Departments in Western Canada. The sample size of 310 respondents consists of 172 non-supervisory staff, 88 first-line supervisors or managers, and 49 second-line managers or above. Of the sample, 291 were permanent employees, and 19 were term employees. Some of the sample characteristics follow, including a comparison with data from a survey of the Federal Public Service conducted in 1999 by Linda Duxbury, Lorraine Dyke, and Natalie Lam (the study will hereafter be referred to as the Duxbury study: see reference list for citation). The average age was 44.6 years, compared with 44 in the Duxbury study; average public service was 13.6 years, with 35% having more than 20 years of service. This compares with the average of 17 years in the Duxbury study. The difference may be due to the percentage of people who previously held full time positions in the private or not for profit sectors (51% in this study). The percentage of females was 61.5%, relatively high, and likely a result of the sample Departments in the study so far. The distribution of nonsupervisory versus supervisory respondents by gender revealed that 66 of the 119 males (55.5%) were supervisors whereas 70 of the 189 females (37%) were supervisors. The corresponding figures from the Duxbury study are 54% and 37%. The highest level of formal education were: high school (7.1%); some post secondary (12.6%), college or technical school diploma (19.0%); university degree (41.6%) and post graduate degree (19.7%). The 61.3% completing at least one university degree compares with the 64% in the Duxbury study. Thus except for the gender percentage and time in the public service, this study s sample corresponds with the Duxbury study. Questionnaire design The majority of the questions have been employed in other studies (sources provided in References). The remaining items were written specifically for this study based upon the literature and on discussions with HR professionals. Most of the items were measured on a 5-point scale, with only the end points described. These were 1 = strongly agree; 5 = strongly disagree and 1 = very great extent; 5 = very little extent. Analysis The results are given as follows: the mean of the scores and the percentage of those who either strongly agreed (1) or who agreed (implied by a score of 2) with the statement, or indicated that a statement described a situation to a very great extent (1) or to a fairly great extent (implied by a score of 2). The analysis proceeds with a series of questions followed by commentary. Why did they join the public service? Results and Discussion Timing of the job offer was right 1.57 89% Opportunity to apply academic background and related education 2.18 69% Career opportunities within the public service 2.71 48% Extent to which private or non profit jobs were seriously considered 2.79 47% Salary 2.85 41% Opportunity to serve the public 2.85 41% The good reputation of the Department making the offer 3.17 29%

3 There were few differences by demographics. Those with University degrees reported that the opportunity to apply academic learning was more important than did the other respondents. Those who previously occupied permanent positions in the private or not for profit sectors more strongly considered these sectors before joining the government. The respondents in one Department indicated that the opportunity to serve the public was a greater motivator for joining the public service than did those in the other Departments. Age and experience indicators did not predict reasons for joining the public service. These findings are consistent with those of other studies. The two primary reasons for joining the public service are the timing of the job offer and the ability to apply one s academic background, in particular for university graduates. The other factors did not play nearly as significant a role. However, the factor may not have been salient enough (e.g. not aware of the Department s reputation) or the factor may have been less important. Neither reason, however, detracts from the importance of the need for rapid decision making in the staffing process or for the importance of the fit between knowledge and positions. These two factors appear to be key in more effective recruitment. The opportunity of applying valued knowledge and skills, and for career mobility and progress may be central messages in a recruitment campaign, with the more altruistic values of contributing to the public service and to a Department used as context. Thus, effective messages about the value of public service may prove, other things being equal, as the pull required in attracting individuals to the public sector. These messages could address both the importance of the public sector (raising service as a criterion) and a Department s contributions (organizational salience). Forty-seven percent of respondents seriously considered employment with the private and the not for profit sector. This indicates that applicants believed that their knowledge and skills could be applied in several sectors and reinforces the need for aggressive recruitment. Moreover, as competition for scarce labour increases, attracting people from outside the civil service will likely become more difficult. On the other side, however, 30% of the respondents did not seriously consider the private or not for profit sectors. This predisposition for public service positions may be an important factor in recruitment and suggests an even greater need to consider aggressive hiring at post secondary institutions. The strategy of aggressive recruitment, followed by retention policies abetted by investments in knowledge best recouped in the public service, may be an effective approach. As discussed later, once an individual joins the public service, there is a strong tendency to remain in the public sector, though not necessarily in the original Department. What were factors in seeking the present position? The question was: To what extent did the following factors play a role in your seeking the position you are currently in? Asked of all respondents, question is concerned with the importance of some factors that may be important in motivating people in their career changes. The results were: Non supervisors Supervisors Better utilized knowledge, skills, and abilities 2.02 75% 1.87 83% Higher level of responsibility 2.80 46% 2.08 80% Higher salary 2.93 44% 2.55 58% Greater contribution to the public service 2.93 38% 2.42 57% The interesting finding here is that the use of knowledge and skills remained a significant factor in seeking positions within the public service. The finding that supervisors sought management positions to

4 satisfy needs for exercising responsibility is consistent with literature in this area. Interestingly enough service to the public sector remains a background variable. Did they have a previous full time position in the private or not for profit sector? It was found that about 51% of the respondents previously were employed full time in the private or not for profit sectors, which is consistent with some other studies. Of these, 19 entered as managers, 139 as professional or technical staff (of the 310 total). Their experience in adapting to the public sector is an important consideration from both the individual and the employer perspective. However, the interpretation of the results must be tempered since it is unknown how easy or difficult the transition might have been for those who entered, then left the public service. Past experience related to work in Department? 2.37 65% Transfer knowledge from past experience to Department? 1.66 86% Adapt to Department in a reasonable length of time? 1.67 90% Adjustment took about as much effort as expected before accepting position? 2.31 61% Respondents generally had little difficulty in adapting to the public service environment, a fact that may help in recruiting individuals currently in the private or not for profit sectors. Moreover, the reasons why they were attracted did not differ from those who began their careers in the public sector, except for their search in the private or not for profit sector (2.53 versus 3.05; indicating greater consideration of these sectors) and their ability to apply knowledge and skills (2.03 versus 2.33). Interestingly, there was no difference regarding the opportunity to serve the public. Thus, it appears that those who moved from the private or not for profit sectors were motivated strongly by the ability to apply their previously acquired knowledge, skills, and abilities. This suggests that a message, that the public service offers opportunities that the other sectors may not, may be quite effective. It may be useful to research questions such as how specific opportunities provide a competitive advantage to the public sector. While speculative, it may be easier for individuals in the private or not-for-profit sectors to move into the public service than vice versa (easy transition into the public service but reluctance to leave). Mobility characteristics The following demographic information provides some indications of the mobility patterns of the respondents. How long have they been in their present position? Less than 6 months 23 7 % 6 months less than 3 years 96 31 % 3 5 years 88 28 % 6-10 years 60 19% 11 or more 43 14% In the sample, 66% have spent fewer than 5 years in the same position, compared with an average of 6 years in the Duxbury study. There is no difference between non supervisors and supervisors with respect to duration in current position. Approximately 50% (153 respondents) have worked in one Department; 83 (27%) worked in two Departments, and 70 (23%) have worked in three Departments or more, numbers that are consistent with the Duxbury study.

5 They have worked for the same supervisor for: less than 6 months 40 (13%); 6 months to less than 3 years 139 (45%); 3 to 5 years (76 (25%); and 6 or more years 55 (18%). Over the last three years, respondents have had: the same supervisor 125 (41%); two supervisors 101 (33%); and three or more supervisors 83 (27%). Aspirations Individual career plans are an integral component on understanding mobility. Three years was chosen as an appropriate time horizon, based in part upon advice received from human resource management professionals. The question posed below was asked in which 1 = very great extent and 5 = very little extent. A subsequent analysis sought to find clusters of individuals (e.g. those who wished to be promoted and simultaneously did not wish to remain in the current position). Both types of information may help to identify issues that HR systems may address. The following question was asked: In three years time, would you like to be working. (non-supervisors) Same position 2.83 45% Different position with no supervisory responsibility 3.21 28% Position with supervisory responsibility 2.79 49% Using responses 1 or 2 as indicating desirability of a position 3 years from now; and 3, 4, or 5 as indicating indifference or undesirability of the position, four clusters of individuals were formed. For example, category 1, below, consists of those individuals who indicated that they would wish to be working in a position with supervisory responsibility to a very great extent (1) or to a moderate extent (2) and scored a (3) which is neutral, or (4) or (5) - very little extent for remaining in the same position. The number of respondents is lower than the sample size as many individuals did not respond to all questions. 1. Desire promotion to supervisor 54 2. Want to stay in same position 46 3. Both promotion and staying are desirable 22 4. Neither desirable 34 Total 156 Those in category 4 are more favourable to moving to a lateral career move. Where would they like to be in three years time? (supervisors) Same position 2.78 51% Same level different position 3.20 31% Higher supervisory level 2.47 54% Less supervisory responsibility 3.94 17% 1. Desire promotion 40 2. Want to stay in same position 42 3. Both promotion and staying 19 4. Neither desirable 17 Total 118

6 Those in category 4 are more favourable to a lateral move or position with less responsibility. The data indicates that many people wish promotion. This is an indicator of the supply available to fill positions as they become vacant and the demand for training and support programs to assist in the transition, especially for rank and file staff promoted to supervisor. The data presented later will suggest the potential need for further training and assistance in the transition process. On the other hand, there are many who are relatively dissatisfied wishing neither a promotion nor to stay in the present position (22% of non-supervisors and 14% of supervisors). This suggests the importance of developing systems for lateral movement and, for supervisors, the opportunity to move into more technical positions or those that have somewhat less supervisory responsibilities. Managers and supervisors feel they can adapt easily. Management KSA enable me to have many career options in the civil service 2.71 (41%) Management KSA can be applied to other Departments 2.03 (78%) Can learn specifics of other Departments in reasonable length of time 1.67 (87%) These findings are not unexpected, although the response to the last question seems surprising, especially in the context of some later questions which suggests that knowledge of the work unit is important to their effectiveness as supervisors. Are they thinking of seeking another position? The voluntary turnover measure is composed of three items, including I am planning to search for a new job during the next 12 months. While many people who intend to leave have low job satisfaction, others may simply desire more variety or have reasons not related to the job (e.g. spouse leaving the city). The variable is reverse scored. The score is 2.73 the interpretation is that 54% strongly agree or agree that they are not seeking career options. There was no difference by Department or gender. Those aged 26 35 were more likely to search, with those with a high school high school least likely to search. Those who were seeking promotion, or indifferent to promotion or remaining in the job were more likely to search. These results would not be unexpected. The respondents were then asked if they were thinking of searching for a new job - where they would search for a new job. The question asked, How likely would you search for a position in..(sector) : the scale ends were definitely likely to definitely unlikely. The number of respondents was 268. Within the Department 2.37 61% Within the public sector 2.07 75% Not for profit sector 3.39 27% Private sector 3.03 38% Those 26-35 had the lowest scores for the private sector (2.46), indicating they were likely to search in this sector, but they would also search for an internal position (2.24). This pattern was also observed for those seeking promotions and those indifferent to both promotions and the current position. Moreover, those who originally held positions in the private or not for profit sectors had similar scores to those who reported they came directly to government. Thus those planning career changes prefer to seek positions either within the Department or in the civil service generally. The implication is that once a career is underway, there are strong tendencies to remain within the public sector. This may reflect investments in knowledge and skills in the public service and / or a preference for working in a large organization,

7 among other reasons. However, the data shows that the private sector is attractive to those who are younger, those seeking promotion, as well as those who may be disaffected. This implies that if the search for promotions and transfers, and so forth, are not met in the civil service, the search to the private sector may become more attractive. Attitudes The following variables are each composed of several items. Scale reliabilities range from acceptable to very high. The means are presented, and, to be consistent with the previous data analysis, the percentage of those either strongly agreeing or agreeing to a statement is also given. Because the means will fall between integers, it was necessary to round off in order to provide this information. The procedure is illustrated by using the data from the commitment variables below. Commitment to the Department is a 3 item variable, and the individual scores range from 1 to 5, in increments of.33 (e.g. 2.00, 2.33, 2.67, 3.00). The average for the 309 people who responded to the questions is 2.53. Since 2.33 is closer to 2 than to 3, and 50% of the respondents scored 2.33 or below, the statement is: the average score was 2.53, with 50% of respondents either strongly agreeing or agreeing Commitment to the public service is a two item variable, the individual scores range from 1 to 5 in increments of.5. The average of the scores is 2.11. Of the 309 respondents, 186 scored 1, 1.5, or 2. And, 51 scored 2.5. Since 2.5 is squarely in the middle of 1 and 2, half of the 51 people were classified as a 2 and half as a 3. Since 309 respondents answered the public service commitment items, the average score is 2.11, and 68% strongly agreed or agreed [(186 + 25.5) divided by 309]. Commitment Commitment to the public service was measured by two items, for example, I am proud to be part of the Provincial public service ; and commitment to the Department was measured by three items, for example, This Department has a great deal of personal meaning for me. Public service 2.11 68% Department 2.53 50% While the commitment to public sector appears higher than the commitment to the Department, the questions are different, with the latter implying a more affective attachment (e.g. above personal meaning). These two variables are highly correlated. There were no significant differences by department, gender, age, education, or type of position (rank and file versus supervisory). The least committed are those who seek promotion. The most committed are supervisors who wish to remain in the same position and non-supervisors who are positive about both remaining and being promoted. The scores are difficult to compare with other studies since commitment is often composed of different items or are scored differently. However, in comparing the one item I am willing to put in extra effort for this organization (Department), the present study had a mean of 1.85 compared with a study of the Federal Civil Service in 1997 that had a mean of 2.23. Thus, on this one item, the present sample is more committed than the 1997 Federal sample. Promotion stress This variable is concerned with stress associated with a lack of career progress. The four items included, Not being promoted has caused me a great deal of tension. The importance of this variable is that a high degree of stress and collaterally, disappointment, can lead to voluntary turnover, as well as a lack of

8 commitment (as shown later in the development of a model of cause and effect). The first empirical study as far as I know is reported by Carlson and Rotondo (2001). The average score is 3.57, with 16% strongly agreeing or agreeing that career progress is a concern. Compared with the average of 3.07 in a study of 229 MBA graduates (Carlson and Rotondo, 2001), this figure appears to be quite low, suggesting that promotion stress is not a problem overall, but is a problem for some individuals. This is consistent with studies that have found relatively low levels of emotional exhaustion (a form of stress) among public service employees. Females reported lower levels of promotion stress than did males. However, supervisors and managers who either (a) seek promotion and do not wish to remain in their current position or (b) do not seek promotion nor wish to remain in their current position, report the highest levels of stress. These levels are significantly higher than those who wish to remain in their current position. Factors which affect their careers One theme in the HR field is that individuals be able to adapt to changing circumstances (career resilience) by increasing their scope of knowledge and skills. Such mobility is also becoming more important to organizations with changing knowledge and skill requirements. Both career control and flexibility are expected to lead to career control that is, the perception that individuals have about the extent to which they can plan their careers and predict what they will be doing over the short term. This provides individuals with the basis for investing in appropriate knowledge and skills in planning for their future. Career resilience is measured by 4 items: sample item: Can handle work problems which come your way. The mean was 1.77 with 93% strongly agreeing or agreeing that they were adaptable to changing circumstances. This score appears to be very high. Females reported a higher level of adaptability than did males. Career flexibility is measured by 2 items: sample item: I feel that my knowledge, skills, and abilities make me flexible in pursuing career prospects A high degree of flexibility helps individuals to take advantage of opportunities as they arise. The mean was 2.21, with 67% either strongly agreeing or agreeing that they experienced career flexibility. Career control, measured by 3 items, refers to the extent to which people feel that they can plan their careers and predict what they will be doing over the short term. The direct question, I feel that I am in control of my career, was supplemented by two other questions. The mean was 2.82 with 41% strongly agreeing or agreeing that they felt they had control over their careers. Fairness of appraisals and recognition, measured by 4 items, refers to the extent to which the respondent s contributions and knowledge, skills, and abilities have been fairly appraised and recognized. A sample item is: The effort I put into the job is recognized. The mean was 2.68 with 52% strongly agreeing or agreeing that they felt their contributions were fairly appraised and recognized. Supervisors seeking promotion reported the weakest level of agreement, significantly different from either those who wished to remain in their current position or were positive toward both promotion and remaining in their current position.

9 While the score for career resilience was very positive, there is less support for feelings of career flexibility, career control, and fairness of appraisals. The data suggest there is room for improvement, however, the lack of comparable data prevents drawing conclusions about what would be appropriate levels. What contributes to these attitudes? One theme in the HRM field on careers is the importance placed on individuals taking the initiative in developing knowledge and skills to pursue options. Career development activities consist of 4 items (sample item: please rate the extent to which you Look for job assignments that will help you meet your career goals? ). The mean score was 2.00 with 78% indicating that respondents engaged in career development activities to a very great extent or to a fairly great extent. Females reported higher levels of career development activities than did males. This high score is consistent with those interviewed in the Duxbury study. In developing careers, the availability of training programs is important. Respondents were asked about their access to effective training and development programs with respect to three questions. A sample question is: enable me to be more flexible in the types of work I can do in the future. The mean score was 2.79, with 43% indicating that they either strongly agreed or agreed that they had sufficient access to training and development programs. Forty eight, or 16%, of respondents indicated that they are, or have been, part of a formal career development program in either the Provincial or Federal civil service. The role of the supervisor is important in developing careers. While a great deal of attention has been placed on such approaches as mentorship systems, there appears to be relatively little research with respect to the role that day to day activities play in encouraging career development. This study employed three conceptually different, but highly correlated measures. The first measure is supervisory support in decision making (3 items). A sample item is Makes sure you get the credit when you accomplish something substantial on the job. This refers to the social and technical support supervisors may provide their staff. The mean score is 2.20 with 65% rating their supervisor as providing work support to a very great or fairly great extent. The second measure is providing feedback with respect to performance and how to improve performance (measured by 2 items). A sample item is: Gives you helpful feedback about your performance. The mean score is 2.71 with 46% rating their supervisor as providing feedback to a very great extent or to a great extent. The third dimension is concerned with the supervisor s direct support of the subordinate s career (8 items). Sample items include: My supervisor Takes the time to learn about my career goals and aspirations and Encourages me to plan my career. The mean score is 3.03 with 22% rating their supervisor as providing direct career support to a very great extent or to a great extent. Supervisors seeking promotion reported receiving the lowest level of career support (significantly different from those wishing to remain in their current positions).

10 The survey used one item to measure of the effectiveness of career counseling. The question was: All in all, I am satisfied with the career counseling I have received. The mean score was 3.59, with 15% strongly agreeing or agreeing that they were satisfied with the career counseling received. Both supervisors seeking promotion as well as those (including non-supervisors) neither seeking promotion nor remaining in their current position reported the lowest levels of satisfaction (significantly different from those wishing to remain in their current positions). The results suggest some areas for improvement. The seemingly low degree to which supervisors provide feedback on performance seems important since research has found that feedback is critical to performance. This is strongly related to the limited career advice supervisors provide their staff. Finally all this is reflected in the very low score on career counseling. The pattern seems important, suggesting that more emphasis be placed on supervisory involvement in career development. However, it is quite possible that there may be philosophical as well as interpersonal reasons why this may not be an effective approach. The data also indicates that those managers and supervisors who are seeking promotion also report greater levels of dissatisfaction with a variety of career concerns. This finding may be important in the context of the challenges faced in the public sector in filling middle and senior management positions. Barriers to Development Respondents were asked to identify which factors served as barriers to their own development; with supervisors also being asked to indicate which factors served as barriers to their subordinates development. An individual could check any number of the items. Own development N=310 Subordinates development Difficult to free up time 183 62% 93 73% Lack of funding by government to support programs 163 55% 87 68% Future requirements for jobs are unclear 107 36% 44 34% Lack of knowledge about programs available 105 35% 41 32% Lack of useful programs 99 33% 53 41% Not clear which programs will be useful 99 33% 45 35% Respondent is unclear about career direction 88 30% 77 60% The difficulties in freeing up time and funding are the most important blockages. However, while 36% of non-supervisors indicate that they are unclear about their career direction, 60% of supervisors identified this reason as a barrier for their staff. This finding is consistent with the previously noted lack of interaction between supervisor and subordinate regarding career issues. This appears quite important, since, given the difficulties of time and resources, supervisors and subordinates must make decisions on how to allocate these resources. The lack of information may cause ineffective allocation of these scarce resources.

11 Barriers to Career Progress The study also measured the extent to which a number of factors which prevented people from taking advantage of career opportunities. In each case, the scale read Regarding future career opportunities in the Provincial public service, to what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements? (1 = strongly agree; 5 = strongly disagree) Few openings of interest 2.39 55% A lot of competition for positions I am interested in 2.56 47% Difficult to know qualifications needed in future 2.92 40% Systems do not measure my qualifications accurately 2.77 38% Qualifications not known to decision makers 2.80 37% Insufficient experience 3.38 23% Categorized as specialist or difficult to replace 3.50 22% Females reported that competition was higher than did males, but that being categorized as a specialist was less of a barrier than did males, but that experience was more of a barrier than did males. The two highest barriers are few openings of interest and competition for these positions. While each is important by itself, it is the combination that may be of concern. Of the 305 responding to this question, 32% strongly agree or agree that there are few positions of interest and there is a lot of competition for these positions. This compared with only 4% who strongly disagreed or disagreed with both statements. This may be an area of concern. In particular, this suggests that the promotion and transfer process needs to be both transparent and easily explained, otherwise, feelings of inequity and dissatisfaction may arise. However, the scores on qualifications may suggest some difficulties, with 37 38% of respondents indicating that they strongly agreed or agreed that these represented barriers to their career progress. Moreover, 24% strongly agreed or agreed to both statements versus 13% who strongly disagreed or disagreed with both statements. First Line Supervisors The study asked a number of questions of the experiences and attitudes of first line supervisors who were promoted from within the Department (N = 41). The information may assist in identifying issues that may be of concern in the transition from rank and file to supervisory positions. The question was: To what extent did the following play a role in seeking the position? Believed that technical / professional expertise would 2.26 (67%) help in becoming an effective manager Position was part of a career plan 1.93 (88%) Progress in tech/professional role didn t seem enough 2.54 (51%) To what extent do you feel that Technical / professional background important to managing unit 1.95 (88%) Managerial role is more ambiguous than professional role 1.98 (76%) Good balance between managerial and technical roles 2.56 (51%) Spending too much time on technical work of the unit 3.24 (15%) Adequately prepared in managerial processes before taking the job 2.98 (32%) Organization helped you in the transition 3.17 (32%) You knew what you were getting into 2.76 (54%)

12 There are some themes that are important to understanding career transitions. First, supervisors promoted from within believe that technical experience is important to managing a unit. While the data indicated that people hired into the civil service from outside were able to adapt easily, the vast majority of these individuals entered at the technical or professional level. Second, respondents indicated that the nature of the work is more ambiguous, but that they were not as prepared in managerial processes as they might have been (32% strongly agreeing or agreeing that they were adequately prepared) and that the organization did not provide a high level of support in the transition (32% strongly agreeing or agreeing). Thus, given the expected changes in staffing, with anticipated promotions to handle retirements, it appears that there is an opportunity for improved transition management. A number of questions were asked regarding participation in decision-making (PDM) and autonomy. PDM was measured by the frequency with which individuals participated in 4 types of decisions (e.g., work assigned to the work unit). The issue of capacity in policy making and policy implementation are not addressed in this study. Autonomy was measured by 4 items (e.g., for supervisors - I can use my personal initiative or judgment in managing the work unit; for non-supervisors - I can use my personal initiative or judgment in carrying out the work; and for both, I feel my supervisor doesn t delegate enough ). For non supervisory individuals Autonomy 2.05 75% PDM 2.92 41% For supervisors Autonomy 2.13 71% PDM 2.40 60% This data indicates a relatively high level of autonomy experienced by both supervisors and nonsupervisors. While the scores on participation seem relatively low, a study in the Federal public service found an average of 3.22 for the same set of items. The public service context where many decisions are made at political levels may explain the seemingly low levels of PDM. However, the autonomy scores indicate a significant level of freedom and discretion in task performance, an important factor related to job satisfaction. Moreover, these scores may run counter to common notions of a civil servant s discretion, and may be useful in a recruitment campaign. Relationships among the variables Managers and professionals are concerned about relationships among variables that form the theory that guides actions. For example, people are concerned about questions such as: How can commitment be increased? How can intended turnover be reduced? How can career flexibility be improved so people can become more mobile? Some variables can be addressed directly for example, career flexibility can be improved by providing more training and more information on what types of positions will be available in the future. However, other variables, such as reducing turnover, have to be approached indirectly by changing commitment and other variables related to turnover. This study is cross-sectional that is, individuals completed just one questionnaire, rather than two or more instruments separated by time. Thus, while one cannot conclude that one variable causes another, one can say that they are associated. In the following discussion, the directions (one variable causes another) are based on theories developed in the extensive literature on careers and stress. A short reference list is provided. One can only say that the model has been supported by the data other models

13 could also apply there can also be feedback loops. To make use of as much data as possible in testing the model, the standard practice of using the sample average of an item to estimate missing values was followed. The size of the sample is moderate for studies among relationships. The correlation matrix (Table 1) shows the relationships among the variables. However, to demonstrate a reasonable pattern of cause and effect, a model (Appendix 4) was developed and tested using the computer program AMOS. While it may seem complicated, an arrow between two variables, such as promotion stress! commitment simply means that a relationship from promotion stress leading to commitment is supported by the data. By taking variables two by two, the model becomes relatively easy to understand. The paths shown are those found to be significant, hypothesized paths which were not supported have been excluded, and paths suggested by the data but which were not hypothesized were excluded. As mentioned earlier, many of these relationships will make common sense and simply reinforce beliefs that are widely held, and some have been well researched (e.g. commitment to turnover). However, others may be relatively new, and hopefully, provide some insight to guide actions that will lead to desired results. First grouping of variables The model proposes that commitment to the Department and promotion stress will be primary predictors of the intention to search. These are attitudes and can only be indirectly influenced. (Commitment to the public is not included since one item overlapped significantly with staying with the organization). First, promotion stress was negatively associated with commitment to the Department (the higher the stress, the lower the commitment). Second, promotion stress and commitment independently predicted the intention to search for another position (the higher the stress, the greater the intention to search; the higher the commitment, the lower the intention to search). The variance explained in the intention to leave (in total as we shall discuss two other factors also play a role) was 28.1 %, which is quite high (if the four variables predicted the intention to leave completely, the variance explained would be 100%). Other factors such as investments in organizationally specific knowledge or a desire to relocate also play a significant role in understanding turnover intentions. As indicated before, most people plan to search within rather than outside the civil service. Second grouping of variables Since promotion stress is a central variable, associated with commitment and voluntary turnover intentions, it seemed important to ask: What causes or is associated with promotion stress? Moreover, since individuals value career mobility, understanding what may cause them to feel a lack of progress in the form of promotions is important for diagnosis and action. Three variables are associated with promotion stress, that is, cause people to be concerned about continued career progress (primarily with respect to promotions). The first is the fairness of appraisal and recognition the degree to which individuals feel that their contributions are recognized (the greater people feel their efforts are appreciated and fairly appraised, the less the promotion stress). The second is the extent to which they feel in control of their careers (the greater the control, the less the stress). The ability to control one s career is negatively associated with emotional exhaustion, a form of stress that decreases commitment and increases turnover (Ito and Brotheridge, 2001). The third variable is the level of autonomy, that is, the degree to which people can exercise discretion in their daily work-life (the greater the autonomy, the less the stress). Finally, career development activities unexpectedly predicted promotion stress (the greater the activity, the greater the stress). One potential explanation is that higher levels of activity may result in promotion stress if the individual does not perceive progress. The other

14 possibility, that promotion stress may cause higher levels of activities, was not significant. These four variables accounted for 36.3 % of the variance in promotion stress. Third grouping of variables Career control is important because it predicts other variables, and also because many, perhaps most, people seem to like to have a sense of control. So, what predicts career control? As one might expect, it is the fairness of appraisal /recognition and career flexibility. The concept that one s contributions are valued provides direction in how one should invest or continue to invest resources such as time and effort. Career flexibility provides a sense of control by helping people to be adaptable. In the face of uncertainty, one s range of knowledge, skills, and abilities provide the basis for adapting to circumstances. The variance explained is 19.5 %, which is reasonably high. Some time ago, people often had jobs for life, and could rely upon the organization for security. Now, it is one s own career flexibility that provides security through adaptability and mobility and provides a sense of career control important to many individuals in organizations. Fourth grouping of variables The fairness of appraisal and recognition is another central variable. The following variables predict fairness of appraisal / recognition - the supervisor s support of an individual s career (direct activities), supervisor s support of subordinate s decisions including providing feedback on performance (the variables were discussed separately because they differed in the averages, but combined here because they are highly correlated), and the extent to which people participate in decision making and have autonomy in their jobs. In all cases, the greater the variable, the higher the perception of fairness and recognition. The variance explained, 38.2 %, is high. Moreover, it has been noted that the scores on some of the variables in particular, the direct support of the career and participation are low suggesting some room for improvement. Two barriers to career progress, The systems for managing promotions and transfers do not accurately measure my qualifications and My qualifications are not well known to those who make decisions on promotions and transfers were combined into a variable. This variable, intended to measure systemic effects, was not included in the model, as it overlaps with fairness and recognition. As shown in the table of correlations, it overlaps with fairness and recognition, and is strongly related to promotion stress and to career control. Fifth grouping of variables Here, three variables career flexibility, career development activities, and career resilience are considered together. First, career development activities predict career flexibility that, in turn, predicts career resilience. This is no surprise, as individual efforts to broaden knowledge and skills through such actions as seeking new tasks, should result in the ability to take on other positions and provide a feeling of being able to adapt to circumstances. Moreover, autonomy in task performance predicts career flexibility. Finally, the supervisor s support of career also predicts career flexibility, and career development activities. All relationships are positive effects (the greater the X, the greater the Y). Career development activities and intentions to search for another position While career development activities have positive effects on career flexibility and resilience, desirable qualities in these times, it also has another effect. The greater the extent to which people invest in broadening their knowledge, skills, and abilities, the more they feel they are mobile, and the more likely they are to search for another position. This relationship has been found before. This means that

15 investments to develop individuals can result in their leaving their position however, if commitment remains high, it is likely that the search will be within the public service and therefore facilitate the government as a whole, though perhaps not the work unit in particular. Additional roles of the supervisory variables The supervisor s support of people s careers predicts the level of commitment to the Department (the greater the support, the greater the commitment); and supervisor s general support predicts the intention to search (the greater the support, the less the intention to search) Other relationships As shown in the correlation matrix, supervisor s support of their subordinates career, and their support of the subordinates work are related to both participation and autonomy. This is expected, and reflects a management philosophy often called high involvement and high commitment approaches to leadership in organizations. Additional comments While the model shows a number of relationships, two variables deserve special mention. The model suggests that the supervisor s support of the career and fairness in appraisal / recognition of contributions play significant roles in the model. Moreover, the mean scores of these variables suggest room for improvement. Concluding Comments This research addressed several questions posed at the beginning of the paper. The following are some selected points that may be useful in identifying strategies to recruit, retain and facilitate employee career mobility. People are principally attracted by the timing of offers and the opportunity to apply their knowledge and skills. This opportunity is also the principal reason for seeking new positions within the public service. While the public sector competes with the private sector in hiring, once hired, the tendency to remain in the public service appears to be quite strong. Development of career paths that cross unit and Departmental borders (and, perhaps inter-governmental boundaries) may be effective in taking advantage of accumulated competencies. Moreover, since career opportunities were important in attracting individuals, the prospect of a career in the public service, broadly defined, may serve as a useful recruitment tactic. Those entering the public service from permanent positions in the private and not for profit sectors report little difficulty in adapting (with the caveat that many who experienced difficulties may not have remained for long or otherwise did not complete the questionnaire). Generally, while many individuals seek promotion, many wish to remain in their present positions for the next three years. While a numerical balance between these groups is desirable since mobility ambitions need to be matched to openings, attention may be paid to those who neither seek promotion nor wish to remain in their current position.

16 Satisfaction with career counseling was very low, reinforced by relatively low scores on supervisors involvement in their subordinates careers. This pattern applied to supervisors and non-supervisors alike. Moreover, supervisory feedback on performance and providing advice about improving performance also appeared somewhat low. This was partly counter-balanced by relatively high scores on supervisory support such as giving credit and visibility and familiarity with the subordinate s work and problems. This is consistent with the common belief that managers may be less inclined toward the softer side of management than toward the more technical side. Finally, supervisors who were seeking promotions and those (supervisors and nonsupervisors) who neither sought promotion nor wished to remain in their current positions reported significantly lower scores on supervisory support of career than those in the other groups. The sizeable minority in this group represents a challenge to HR units. And supervisors seeking promotion scored significantly lower in their perceptions of the fairness of the appraisal process and recognition than other supervisors. The pattern suggests that a particularly important group supervisors who wish to be promoted may be a target for HR interventions. This paper has reported on a number of attitudes. The results may assist in assessing potential intraorganizational mobility and planning recruitment and retention strategies. The data suggested that respondents: Are committed to the public service. Commitment to the Department appeared somewhat less, but the measurement of the concept made it difficult to compare with other studies. However, on one item, the commitment expressed in this study was significantly higher than in a larger study in the Federal service. Feel they are adaptable to changing circumstances, that is, report high levels of career resilience. Engage in many individual career development activities, despite some problems in receiving enough training and development opportunities. They report relatively high levels of career flexibility and control, and feel they will be mobile within the Department and public service. This was particularly true for supervisory staff who are particularly confident in their ability to move to other positions, including those in other Departments. Report relatively low levels of promotion stress. This report identifies some opportunities for improving career mobility within the public service. As suggested earlier, there appears to be a significant problem with career counseling and involvement of supervisors in the career development process. This support is important for a variety of reasons. The model demonstrated the pervasive effect that supervisory support has on career development activities, career flexibility and resilience, and on the fairness of appraisal and recognition of contributions. While the respondents reported high levels of career development activity, by and large these are individually based, and they may benefit from greater support, including more information. There are many reasons why supervisors may not provide career support, including time availability, a lack of knowledge about opportunities, a desire to avoid the type of counseling which people may seek, and the responsibility of providing direction in an uncertain situation. However, there is room for improvement on providing feedback and helping people improve their performance. This problem has also been found in other studies, and is consistent with the research suggesting that supervisors often avoid providing negative feedback in performance appraisals. Perhaps other systems may be developed to provide this type of support. Such support may help in retaining younger staff, who are more likely to pursue opportunities outside the public sector.