LANDOLT-BÖRNSTEIN Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik Neue Serie Gesamtherausgabe: K.-H. Hellwege O. Madelung Gruppe III: Kristall- und Festkörperphysik Band 17 Halbleiter Herausgeber: O. Madelung M. Schulz H. Weiss f Teilband c Technologie von Si, Ge und SiC W. Dietze E. Doering P. Glasow W. Langheinrich A. Ludsteck H. Mader A. Mühlbauer W. v. Münch H. Runge L. Schleicher M. Schnöller M. Schulz E. Sirtl E. Uden W. Zulehner Herausgegeben von M. Schulz H. Weiss f Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo 1984
Table of contents Semiconductors Subvolume c: Technology of Si, Ge and SiC (edited by M. SCHULZ H. WEISS f) A Introduction (M. SCHULZ) 1 General remarks 1 2 Frequently used Symbols 2 3 Conversion of units 5 4 Abbreviations frequently used in semiconductor technology 6 B Technology of semiconductors 6 Tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors 12 6.1 Silicon and germanium 12 6.1.1 Technological data (A. MÜHLBAUER) 12 6.1.1.0 Introduction 12 6.1.1.1 Phase diagrams and liquidus curves 12 6.1.1.2 Solubility in solid Si and Ge 13 6.1.1.3 Equilibrium distribution coefficient 14 6.1.1.4 Melt diffusion coefficient 16 6.1.1.5 Evaporation rate 16 6.1.1.6 Tetrahedral covalent radius 17 6.1.1.7 Thermophysical properties 17 6.1.1.8 Properties of liquid Si and Ge 19 References for 6.1.1 20 6.1.2 Crystal growth 23 6.1.2.1 Deposition of polycrystalline Silicon (W. DIETZE) 23 6.1.2.1.0 Introduction 23 6.1.2.1.1 Deposition technology 23 6.1.2.1.2 Processes connected to deposition 25 6.1.2.1.3 Deposition conditions 26 6.1.2.1.4 Alternative processes 26 6.1.2.2 Preparation and purification methods of Ge (W. DIETZE).... 28 6.1.2.3 Czochralski growth of Si and Ge (W. ZULEHNER) 28 6.1.2.3.0 Introduction 28 6.1.2.3.1 Czochralski pulling technique 28 6.1.2.3.2 Starting materials 32 6.1.2.3.3 Crucible materials 33 6.1.2.3.4 Heating and furnace equipment 35 6.1.2.3.5 Growth ambients 36 6.1.2.3.6 Automatic control 37 6.1.2.3.7 Recharging methods 37 6.1.2.3.8 Czochralski pulling apparatus 38 6.1.2.3.9 Impurity incorporation 39 6.1.2.3.10 Oxygen incorporation 39 6.1.2.4 Zone melting (A. MÜHLBAUER, subsection 6.1.2.4.6 P. GLASOW). 41 6.1.2.4.0 Introduction 41 6.1.2.4.1 Silicon float-zone technology 41
X Table of contents 6.1.2.4.2 Forces in a floating zone 43 6.1.2.4.3 Doping of float-zone grown crystals 43 6.1.2.4.4 Redistribution of impurities 45 6.1.2.4.5 Faceting 46 6.1.2.4.6 Growth of high purity germanium 47 6.1.2.5 Unconvendonal Si crystallization techniques (M. SCHULZ, E. SIRTL) 50 6.1.2.5.1 Directional solidification 50 6.1.2.5.2 Mould casting 51 6.1.2.5.3 Sheet growth 52 6.1.2.6 Wafer preparation (W. ZULEHNER) 54 6.1.2.6.1 Ingot preparation 54 6.1.2.6.2 Slicing, lapping, and edge rounding 55 6.1.2.6.3 Etching, polishing, wafer finishing 56 References for 6.1.2 57 6.1.3 Characterization of crystal properties 62 6.1.3.1 Properties of polycrystalline Silicon (W. DIETZE) 62 6.1.3.2 Properties of Czochralski Silicon (W. ZULEHNER) 62 6.1.3.2.1 Doping profiles 63 6.1.3.2.2 Oxygen in CZ Silicon 64 6.1.3.2.3 Impurities in CZ Silicon 66 6.1.3.2.4 Lattice defects 67 6.1.3.3 Properties of float-zone Silicon (A. MÜHLBAUER) 69 6.1.3.3.1 Doping profiling 69 6.1.3.3.2 Impurity striations 70 6.1.3.3.3 Impurities 71 6.1.3.3.4 Defects 72 6.1.3.4 Properties of high purity germanium (P. GLASOW) 73 6.1.3.4.1 Impurities in the starting material 73 6.1.3.4.2 Impurities in purified Ge 73 6.1.3.5 Diagnostic techniques (A. MÜHLBAUER, subsection 6.1.3.5.3 P. GLASOW) 77 6.1.3.5.1 Doping profiling 77 6.1.3.5.2 Impurity and defect analysis 77 6.1.3.5.3 Characterization - techniques for high purity germanium 82 References for 6.1.3 83 6.1.4 Device technology 90 6.1.4.0 Basic device structures (H. MADER, subsection 6.1.4.0.9 P. GLASOW) 90 6.1.4.0.0 Introduction 90 6.1.4.0.1 Diodes 91 6.1.4.0.2 Transistors 94 6.1.4.0.3 Bipolar transistors 101 6.1.4.0.4 MOS-transistors 101 6.1.4.0.5 Thyristors 102 6.1.4.0.6 Bipolar integrated circuits 102 6.1.4.0.7 MOS-integrated circuits 103 6.1.4.0.8 CMOS integrated circuits 104 6.1.4.0.9 Nuclear radiation detectors 104 References for 6.1.4.0 115 6.1.4.1 Diffusion (W. LANGHEINRICH under assistance of K. HABERLE). 118 6.1.4.1.0 Introduction 118
Table of contents XI 6.1.4.1.1 Diffusion coefficients 119 6.1.4.1.2 Introduction of impurities by diffusion 129 6.1.4.1.3 Properties of diffusion source material 134 6.1.4.1.4 Diffusion in the System Si0 2 /Si 135 6.1.4.1.5 Diffusion profiles 139 6.1.4.1.6 Properties of masking layers 141 6.1.4.1.7 Gettering 144 References for 6.1.4.1 145 6.1.4.2 Ion implantation (H. RUNGE) 150 6.1.4.2.0 Introduction 150 6.1.4.2.1 Depth distribution of implanted ions 150 6.1.4.2.2 Annealing 154 6.1.4.2.3 Implantation of dopants in Si 154 6.1.4.2.4 Implantation of dopants in Ge 156 6.1.4.2.5 Useful formulas 156 6.1.4.2.6 Range tables 157 6.1.4.2.7 Evaluation of ion implanted layers 166 6.1.4.2.8 Implantation apparatus 170 References for 6.1.4.2 179 6.1.4.3 Nuclear transmutation doping (M. SCHNÖLLER) 185 6.1.4.3.0 Introduction 185 6.1.4.3.1 Nuclear transmutation 185 6.1.4.3.2 Radiation defects 185 6.1.4.3.3 Side reactions of neutron irradiation 186 6.1.4.3.4 Irradiation exposure time 188 6.1.4.3.5 Selection and preparation of the starting Silicon..188 6.1.4.3.6 Neutron irradiation 188 6.1.4.3.7 Radioactivity of the irradiated Silicon 189 6.1.4.3.8 Annealing 189 References for 6.1.4.3 190 6.1.4.4 Silicon epitaxy (A. LUDSTECK) 192 6.1.4.4.1 Introduction 192 6.1.4.4.2 Basic technology 193 6.1.4.4.3 Scope of the data collection 196 6.1.4.4.4 Properties of materials used in Si epitaxy 197 6.1.4.4.5 Epitaxial Silicon growth 202 6.1.4.4.6 Doping during epitaxy 205 6.1.4.4.7 Low-pressure deposition 206 6.1.4.4.8 Defects in epitaxial layers 207 6.1.4.4.9 Evaluation of epitaxial Silicon films 207 References for 6.1.4.4 210 6.1.4.5 Fabrication of layers (subsections 6.1.4.5.0- -7, E. DOERING, 6.1.4.5.8--12 L.SCHLEICHER) 213 6.1.4.5.0 Introduction to insulating films 213 6.1.4.5.1 Thermal oxidation of Silicon 213 6.1.4.5.2 Modified thermal oxidation processes 217 6.1.4.5.3 Chemical vapour deposition 219 6.1.4.5.4 Evaporation 223 6.1.4.5.5 Sputtering 224 6.1.4.5.6 Anodization 225 6.1.4.5.7 Properties of insulating films 225 References for 6.1.4.5.0- -6.1.4.5.7 233 6.1.4.5.8 Requirements on metal layers 593 6.1.4.5.9 Metal deposition 595 6.1.4.5.10 Properties of metals used for deposition 604 6.1.4.5.11 Intrinsic properties of metal layers 610
Table of Contents 6.1.4.5.12 Residual gas dependent properties of metal layers.. 613 References for 6.1.4.5.8- -6.1.4.5.12.. 621 6.1.4.6 Litography (H. MADER) 250 6.1.4.6.0 Introduction 250 6.1.4.6.1 Resists 250 6.1.4.6.2 Photolithography 251 6.1.4.6.3 Electron-beam lithography 260 6.1.4.6.4 X-ray lithography 265 6.1.4.6.5 Ion-beam lithography 270 References for 6.1.4.6 274 6.1.4.7 Etching processes (H. MADER) 280 6.1.4.7.1 Wet etching 280 6.1.4.7.2 Wet etching techniques 281 6.1.4.7.3 Wet etching processes for pattern generation.... 281 6.1.4.7.4 Wetetchants 282 References for 6.1.4.7.1---6.1.4.7.4 301 6.1.4.7.5 Dry etching 305 6.1.4.7.6 Ion etching processes 307 6.1.4.7.7 Reactive dry etching processes 319 6.1.4.7.8 Systems used for reactive dry etching 325 6.1.4.7.9 Gases used in reactive dry etching 328 References for 6.1.4.7.5- -6.1.4.7.9 351 6.1.4.8 Final device preparation (E. UDEN) 367 6.1.4.8.1 Survey of package groups 367 6.1.4.8.2 Package components and materials 375 6.1.4.8.3 Assembly methods 387 6.1.4.8.4 Properties of packages 395 References for 6.1.4.8 398 6.2 Silicon carbide (W. v. MÜNCH) 403 6.2.0 Introduction 403 6.2.1 Technological data 404 6.2.1.1 Figures of merit for devices 404 6.2.1.2 SiC phase diagram 404 6.2.1.3 Solubility of carbon in Silicon 404 6.2.1.4 Vapour pressure of silane Compounds 404 6.2.2 Crystal growth 404 6.2.2.0 Introductory remarks 404 6.2.2.1 Melt growth 405 6.2.2.2 Vapour growth 405 6.2.2.2.1 Deposition of polycrystalline SiC 405 6.2.2.2.2 Lely technique 406 6.2.3 Characterization of crystal properties 407 6.2.3.1 Polytype verification and crystal defects 407 6.2.3.2 Electrical properties 408 6.2.3.3 Luminescence 408 6.2.4 Devices technology 408 6.2.4.0 Introductory remarks 408 6.2.4.0.1 General processing Steps 408 6.2.4.0.2 Diode-(rectifier)-fabrication 409 6.2.4.0.3 Field-effect transistor fabrication 409 6.2.4.0.4 Light-emitting diode fabrication 409 6.2.4.1 Diffusion 410 6.2.4.2 Ion implantation 410 6.2.4.3 Epitaxy 411
6.2.4.4 6.2.4.5 6.2.4.6 Table of contents 6.2.4.3.1 Vapour-phase epitaxy (VPE) 411 6.2.4.3.2 Liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE) 412 Thermal oxidation 412 Surface preparation 413 6.2.4.5.0 Introductory remarks 413 6.2.4.5.1 Gaseous etching 413 6.2.4.5.2 Molten salt etching 414 6.2.4.5.3 Electrolytic etching 414 Contact fabrication 414 References for 6.2 415 Figures 590 ff. 591 591 ff. XIII