Management Part I: Introduction Ch. 2. The evolution of management Dan C. Lungescu, PhD, assistant professor 2015-2016
Course outline Management Part I: Introduction Part II: Planning Part III: Organizing Part IV: Leading Part V: Controlling
Part I outline Management Part I: Introduction Ch. 1. Manager s job Ch. 2. The evolution of management Ch. 3. Organizational environments Ch. 4. Social responsibility and ethics
Learning objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Identify several early innovative management practices and explain the basic evolution of management theories. Trace the preclassical contributions to the field of management. Explain the major approaches within the classical viewpoint of management. Describe the major developments contributing to the establishment of the behavioral viewpoint. Explain the major approaches within the quantitative viewpoint. Discuss the relevance of systems theory and contingency theory to the field of management. Explain how management in Japan influenced the emerging Theory Z viewpoint of management. Explain how current knowledge about management is the result of innovative processes involving many management pioneers.
Chapter 2 outline A. The major viewpoints B. Early management C. The birth of management ideas D. Classical viewpoint E. Behavioral viewpoint F. Quantitative viewpoint G. Contemporary viewpoints
A. The major viewpoints Management theory Preclassical contributors Classical viewpoint Behavioral viewpoint Quantitative viewpoint Contemporary viewpoints Scientific Management Early behaviorists Management science Systems theory Bureaucratic Management Hawthorne studies Operations management Contingency theory Administrative Management Human Relations movement Management information systems Emerging views Behavioral science approach Outline» A. The major viewpoints
B. Early management Early management Before the Industrial Revolution (England, 18th century). Beginnings: thousands of years back in time. Key decisions were made by a central authority such as a king. Organizations managed on a basis of a ruler's divine right, a church's use of dogma, or the military's use of discipline. Little need to develop and record a formal body of management. Early ideas of management tended to reappear or be reinvented sporadically in one culture after another. Political, religious, and economic beliefs did not allow business organizations to develop to any degree. Outline» B. Early management
Early management (2) Sumerians Egyptians Babylonians Greeks Romans Chinese Venetians 3000 BC 2500 BC 2000 BC 1500 BC Sumerians: used written rules and regulations for governance. Egyptians: used management practices to construct pyramids. Babylonians: used extensive set of laws and policies for governance. Greeks: used different governing systems for cities and state. Romans: used organization structure for communication and control. Chinese: used extensive organization structure for government agencies and the arts. Venetians: organization design and planning concepts to control the seas. Outline» B. Early management (2) 1000 BC 500 BC AD 1 AD 500 AD 1000 AD 1500
Early management concepts Hierarchy Chinese bureaucracy (1000 BC) fully developed into a hierarchy of officials based upon a merit rating system. Rule of ten An Egyptian practice of allocating around 10 servants to each supervisor. Span of control. Hierarchy of authority The Hebrews under Moses, then the ancient Roman army: the concepts of span of control and a hierarchy of authority. Specialization of labor. Departmentalization. Delegation Ancient Greeks: Aristotle (in his Politics) commented on the value of specialization of labor, departmentalization, and delegation of authority, among other managerial concepts. Outline» B. Early management» Early management concepts
Machiavelism Niccolò Machiavelli: The Prince (1513) An exposition on how to rule successfully by gaining and holding power. His comments on the nature of people reflects a set of assumptions which sounds like an early version of what was much later referred to as Theory X management. Whoever desires to found a state and give it laws, must start with the assumption that all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature, whenever they may find occasion for it. Outline» B. Early management» Machiavelism
Cottage industry Skilled non-agricultural work was performed by craft-workers who, using relatively simple, all-purpose tools, produced an entire product, such as a chair or a watch, and sold it directly to individual consumers. Cottage industry Merchants sent material to homes where the families spun, bleached, or dyed the cloth before returning it to the merchant to sell. Outline» B. Early management» Cottage industry
Industrial revolution First workable steam engine (James Watt): Muscle power replaced with machine power. Power engines housed in a central factory location» workers left cottages to go to work in factories. Steam power» lower production costs, expanded markets for more cheaply priced and more available goods. Expanding market» more workers, more machines, and a larger scale of production on a regular basis» increasing need to find methods of organizing and directing. Governing way of government, church, or military replaced by a new philosophy: capitalism (laissez-faire economics). Outline» B. Early management» Industrial revolution
C. The birth of management ideas Robert Owen (1771-1858, British entrepreneur) Recognized the importance of human resources. Became interested in the working and living conditions of his employees upgraded streets, houses, sanitation, educational system. Charles Babbage (1792-1871, English mathematician) The father of modern computing (first practical mechanical calculator and a prototype of modern computers); predicted the specialization of mental work; suggested profit sharing. Henry R. Towne (1844-1924, American engineer) Outlined the importance of management as a science and called for the development of management principles. Outline» C. The birth of management ideas
D. Classical viewpoint Classical viewpoint A perspective on management that emphasizes finding ways to manage work and organizations more efficiently. I. Scientific management (USA) II. Bureaucratic management (Germany) III. Administrative management (France) Classical organizational theory Outline» D. Classical viewpoint
I. Scientific management Scientific management An approach that emphasizes the scientific study of work methods in order to improve worker efficiency. Major representatives: 1. Frederick Winslow Taylor [1856-1915] 2. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth [1868-1924 / 1878-1972] 3. Henry Laurence Gantt [1861-1919] 4. Harrington Emerson [1853-1931] Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» I. Scientific management
1. Frederick Winslow Taylor The father of scientific management Mechanical engineer, then management consultant. Sought to improve industrial efficiency (the efficiency of the operative employee). 1911: The principles of scientific management. 1914: Shop management. The principles of scientific management 1. Scientifically study each part of a task and develop the best method for performing the task. 2. Carefully select workers and train them to perform the task by using the scientifically developed method. 3. Cooperate fully with workers to ensure that they use the proper method. 4. Divide work and responsibility so that management is responsible for planning work methods using scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing the work accordingly. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» I. Scientific management» 1. Frederick Winslow Taylor
2. Frank & Lillian Gilbreth Frank & Lillian Gilbreth Proposed using motion studies to streamline the bricklaying process. Designed special scaffolding for different types of jobs. Reduced the motions involved in bricklaying from 18½ to 4 workers increased the number of bricks laid per day from 1000 to 2700 with no increase in physical exertion. Isolated 17 basic motions» therbligs. Lillian s doctoral thesis: The psychology of management» a pioneer in this field. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» I. Scientific management» 2. Frank & Lillian Gilbreth
3. Henry Laurence Gantt Henry Laurence Gantt Worked with Taylor in several companies» independent consultant. Gantt chart: a graphic aid to planning, scheduling, and control. A unique pay incentive system (not only for workers but also for their supervisors). Gantt chart software: GanttProject (free) Microsoft Project ConceptDraw PROJECT SmartDraw Gant Chart Software Project KickStart Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» I. Scientific management» 3. Henry L. Gantt
Gantt chart: Excel file http://www.vertex42.com/exceltemplates/excel-gantt-chart.html Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» I. Scientific management» 3. H.L. Gantt» Excel Gantt chart
II. Bureaucratic management Bureaucratic management An approach that emphasizes the need for organizations to operate in a rational manner rather than relying on the arbitrary whims of owners and managers. Max Weber [1864-1920] German economist and lawyer. One of the originators of sociology. Devoted his attention to the organization itself as an object of study. Did not directly deal with task-level issues. Concerned with designing a structure of authority-activity relationships which would facilitate the attainment of organizational goals. He developed the concept of bureaucracy as an ideal type of organization. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» II. Bureaucratic management
Max Weber Contribution Did not invent the bureaucratic form of organization, merely described it in detail and showed why it was superior to previous types of systems such as monarchies and dictatorships. Experience tends universally to show that the purely bureaucratic type of administrative organization [...] is, from a purely technical point of view, capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency and is in this sense formally the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control over human beings. It is superior to any other form in precision, in stability, in the stringency of its discipline, and in its reliability Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» II. Bureaucratic management» Max Weber
Bureaucracy Bureaucracy The structure and set of regulations in place to control activity, usually in large organizations and government. Core features of bureaucracy Standardized procedures (rule-following). Formal division of responsibility. Hierarchy. Impersonal relationships. in detail In practice the interpretation and execution of policy can lead to informal influence. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» II. Bureaucratic management» Bureaucracy
Characteristics of bureaucracy Specialization of labor Jobs are broken down into routine, well-defined tasks so that members know what is expected of them and can become extremely competent at their particular subset of tasks. Formal rules and procedures Written rules and procedures specify the behaviors desired from members, facilitate coordination and ensure uniformity. Impersonality Rules, procedures, and sanctions are applied uniformly regardless of individual personalities and personal considerations. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» II. Bureaucratic management» Bureaucracy» Characteristics
Characteristics of bureaucracy (2) Well-defined hierarchy Multiple levels of positions, with carefully determined reporting relationships among levels, provide supervision of lower offices by higher ones. Career advancement based on merit Selection and promotion are based on the qualifications and performance. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» II. Bureaucratic management» Bureaucracy» Characteristics (2)
III. Administrative management Administrative management An approach that focuses on principles that can be used by managers to coordinate the internal activities of organizations. Major representatives: 1. Henry Fayol [1841-1925] 2. Chester Barnard [1886-1961] Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» III. Administrative management
Henri Fayol Henri Fayol [1841-1925] French industrialist, mining engineer» Managing Director of a large coal and iron company. Focused on organization-level issues (problems facing general managers in upper management positions). 1916: General and industrial management [Administration industrielle et générale]. Functions of management 1. Planning 2. Organizing 3. Commanding 4. Coordinating 5. Controlling Enterprise s functions 1. Production 2. Financial 3. Accounting 4. Commercial 5. Security 6. Administrative Principles of management [14 principles within 4 major areas] Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» III. Administrative management» Henri Fayol
Fayol s 4 major areas Departmentalization Not only should jobs be broken down into their smallest components (specialization), but also an organization should be broken down into a series of specialized departments. Scalar process A hierarchy of authority. Span of control A person could usually only control five or six people. Line and staff To allocate to the manager a staff person (or group) who was an expert in a specialized area and could provide advice and counsel to the manager. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» III. Administrative management» Henri Fayol» Areas
Fayol s principles of management Specialization of labor Encourages continuous improvement in skills and the development of improvements in methods. Authority The right to give orders and the power to exact obedience. Discipline No slacking, bending of rules. The workers should be obedient and respectful of the organization. Unity of command Each employee has one and only one boss. Unity of direction A single mind generates a single plan and all play their part in that plan. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» III. Administrative management» Henri Fayol» Principles
Fayol s principles of mg. (2) Subordination of individual interests When at work, only work things should be pursued or thought about. Remuneration Employees receive fair payment for services, not what the company can get away with. Centralization Consolidation of management functions. Decisions are made from the top. Chain of superiors (line of authority) Formal chain of command running from top to bottom of the organization, like military. Order All materials and personnel have a prescribed place, and they must remain there. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» III. Administrative management» Henri Fayol» Principles (2)
Fayol s principles of mg. (3) Equity Equality of treatment (but not necessarily identical treatment). Personnel tenure Limited turnover of personnel. Lifetime employment for good workers. Initiative Thinking out a plan and do what it takes to make it happen. Esprit de corps Harmony, cohesion among personnel. It's a great source of strength in the organization. For promoting esprit de corps, the principle of unity of command should be observed and the dangers of divide and rule and the abuse of written communication should be avoided. Outline» D. Classical viewpoint» III. Administrative management» Henri Fayol» Principles (3)
E. Behavioral viewpoint Behavioral viewpoint Developed as a school of thought in reaction to the cold, impersonal work place of the Classical viewpoint (Traditional management - TM). Traditional management Focused on technological and structural considerations. Classical theorists generally viewed individuals as mechanisms of production. They were primarily interested in finding ways for organizations to use these productive mechanisms more efficiently. Dysfunctional consequences of TM: Job dissatisfaction and low employee motivation. Displacement of organizational goals. Labor-management conflict. Inability to respond to changing conditions. Customer/client dissatisfaction. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint
Behavioral viewpoint (2) Behavioral viewpoint A perspective on management that emphasizes the importance of attempting to understand the various factors that affect human behavior in organizations. Development: I. The early behaviorists II. The Hawthorne studies III. The Human Relations movement IV. The more contemporary behavioral science approach Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint (2)
I. Early behaviorists Early behaviorists The first authors that began to offer alternatives to the emphasis on engineering that characterized the scientific management approach. 1. Hugo Münsterberg 2. Mary Parker Follett Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» I. Early behaviorists
1. Hugo Münsterberg Hugo Münsterberg [1863-1916] German psychologist. Ph.D. in psychology and a medical degree. 1913: Psychology and industrial efficiency psychologists could help industry in 3 major ways: 1. Studying jobs and finding ways of identifying the individuals who are best suited to particular jobs. 2. Identifying the psychological conditions under which individuals are likely to do their best work. 3. Developing strategies that would influence employees to behave in ways that are compatible with management interests. The father of industrial psychology. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» I. Early behaviorists» 1. Hugo Münstergerb
2. Mary Parker Follett Mary Parker Follett [1868-1933] American, political science. Social worker who became interested in employment and workplace issues. Focused on group dynamics in her work and writings. Pioneering ideas on power sharing, conflict resolution, integration of organizational systems. Members of organizations are continually influenced by the groups within which they operates» groups have the capacity to exercise control over themselves and their own activities. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» I. Early behaviorists» 2. Mary Parker Follett
II. Hawthorne studies Hawthorne studies A group of studies conducted at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company during the late 1920s and early 1930s whose results ultimately led to the human relations view of management. Four key research projects: 1. The illumination studies 2. The relay assembly room tests 3. The interviewing program 4. The bank wiring room study Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» II. Hawthorne studies
1. The illumination studies Objective Examining the effect of illumination on worker productivity. Previous research Improved lighting led to improved performance. Failure (abandoned in 1927) Illumination seemed to only have a minor influence on output. Other psychological variables were probably involved. Ending A new series of studies were begun in the relay assembly test room. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» II. Hawthorne studies» 1. The illumination studies
productivity low high The illumination studies: results experimental group: actual control group: actual control group: expected low experimental group: expected amount of light reduction high Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» II. Hawthorne studies» 1. The illumination studies: Results
2. The relay assembly room test Participants Five women relay assemblers, one layout operator, and an observerexperimenter. Changes made in working conditions and incentive plans 1. Rest periods added, work week shortened from 5-1/2 days to 5 days, free refreshments and lunches. 2. Rest pauses and free food removed, the work week returned to its original length. Result Despite all of these changes (even the restrictive ones), the general trend was for greater output than ever before. The results, like those of the illumination studies, appeared to make little sense. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» II. Hawthorne studies» 2. The relay assembly room test
3. The interviewing program George Elton Mayo [1880-1949] The founder of Human Relations movement. Professor at Harvard University. 1930: The interviewing program. 1933: The social problems of an industrialised civilization. The interviewer's job To get the workers to express what was on their minds to listen to the person and summarize from time to time what had been said; no advice was to be given. The average length of each interview was 1-1/2 hours. Results 1. Just talking about a problem appeared to act as an emotional release that seemed to make the workers feel better even though their situation had not changed. 2. The worker should not be thought of as an isolated individual, but as a member of a group or groups. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» II. Hawthorne studies» 3. The interviewing program
4. The bank wiring room study Objective To better understand what had happened in the relay assembly test room. Participants 1. Nine wiremen, three solder men, and two inspectors, placed in a special observation room. 2. An observer who kept records and an interviewer who tried to sense the workers' attitudes, thoughts, and feelings. Changes Wage payments were based on a group incentive plan which rewarded each worker on the basis of the group's total output. Results Workers had a definite notion of a proper day's work - wiring about two units per day. The observer was regarded with some distrust. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» II. Hawthorne studies» 4. The bank wiring room study
Hawthorne studies: conclusions Hawthorne effect The reaction of people to the experiment itself instead of to the planned change. Informal organization Social organization formed by employees to provide the social benefits not provided by the company's formal organization. Main contributions Workers are not so much driven by pay and working conditions as by psychological needs which can be satisfied by belonging to a work group. People feel more positive about their work when they have a chance to participate in decisions regarding that work. Concern by the supervisor for the workers' needs and recognition of their contribution to the production process make workers feel more positive about the organization and more willing to perform at a high level. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» II. Hawthorne studies» 4. The bank wiring room study
III. Human Relations movement Directions provided by the Hawthorne studies 1. Emphasis was placed on building more collaborative and cooperative relationships between supervisors and workers. 2. Managers now needed social skills in addition to technical skills. 3. Managers required a better understanding of how to make workers feel more satisfied with their jobs. 1. Abraham Maslow 2. Douglas McGregor Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» III. Human relations movement
1. Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow [1908-1970] American, Ph.D. in psychology, chairman of the psychology department at Brandeis University. The theory of the hierarchy of needs 3 assumptions about human nature: 1. Human beings have needs that are never completely satisfied. 2. Human action is aimed at fulfilling the needs that are unsatisfied at a given point in time. 3. Needs fit into a somewhat predictable hierarchy, ranging from basic to higher-level needs. selfactualization esteem belongingness safety physiological Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» III. Human relations movement» 1. Abraham Maslow
2. Douglas McGregor Douglas McGregor [1906-1964] Ph.D. at Harvard, professor of industrial management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He developed the concept of Theory X versus Theory Y, a dichotomy dealing with the possible assumptions that managers make about workers. These 2 theories describe managers attitudes towards employees, and not employee behavior! Theory X assumptions Theory Y assumptions Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» III. Human relations movement» 2. Douglas McGregor
Theory X assumptions 1. The average person dislikes work and will try to avoid it. 2. Most people need to be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to get them to work toward organizational goals. 3. The average person wants to be directed, shuns responsibility, has little ambition, and seeks security above all. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» III. Human relations movement» 2. D. McGregor» Theory X
Theory Y assumptions 1. Most people do not inherently dislike work; the physical and mental effort involved is as natural as play or rest. 2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control to reach goals to which they are committed; external control and threat of punishment are not the only means for ensuring effort toward goals. 3. Commitment to goals is a function of the rewards available, particularly rewards that satisfy esteem and self-actualization needs. 4. When conditions are favorable, the average person learns not only to accept but also to seek responsibility. 5. Many people have the capacity to exercise a high degree of creativity and innovation in solving organizational problems. 6. The intellectual potential of most individuals is only partially utilized in most organizations. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» III. Human relations movement» 2. D. McGregor» Theory Y
IV. Behavioral science approach Behavioral science An approach that emphasizes scientific research as the basis for developing theories about human behavior in organizations that can be used to establish practical guidelines for managers. Frederick Herzberg [1923 2000] Organizational behavior Takes a holistic view of behavior by considering individual, group, and organization processes. Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» IV. Behavioral science approach
Frederick Herzberg Frederick Herzberg [1923 2000] American psychologist. 2 major contributions: 1. Work enrichment. 2. Two factor theory (Motivator-hygiene theory; 1959). Two factor theory 2 kinds of factors: 1. Motivator factors: increase satisfaction (achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, promotion, growth). 2. Hygiene factors: decrease dissatisfaction (pay and benefits, company policy and administration, relationships with coworkers, physical environment, supervision, job security). Outline» E. Behavioral viewpoint» IV. Behavioral science approach» Frederick Herzberg
F. Quantitative viewpoint Quantitative viewpoint Focuses on the use of mathematics, statistics, and information aids to support managerial decision making and organizational effectiveness. Three main branches have evolved: 1. Management science (operations research) 2. Operations management 3. Management information systems Outline» F. Quantitative viewpoint
Quantitative viewpoint branches Management science (Operations research) An approach aimed at increasing decision effectiveness through the use of sophisticated mathematical models and statistical methods. Operations management The function, or field of expertise, that is primarily responsible for managing the production and delivery of an organization s products and services. Management information systems The field of management that focuses on designing and implementing computer-based information systems for use by management. Outline» F. Quantitative viewpoint» Branches
G. Contemporary viewpoints Contemporary viewpoints Major innovations in ways of thinking about management. Two of the most important contemporary viewpoints : I. Systems theory II. Contingency theory Today: III. Emerging views Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints
I. Systems theory Systems theory An approach based on the notion that organizations can be visualized as systems. System A set of interrelated parts that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals. Organizational system s components 1. Inputs 2. Transformation processes 3. Outputs 4. Feedback Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» I. Systems theory
Organizational system s components Outputs The products, services, and other outcomes produced by the organization. Inputs The various human, material, financial, equipment, and informational resources required to produce goods and services. Transformation processes The organization s managerial and technological abilities that are applied to convert inputs into outputs. Feedback Information about results and organizational status relative to the environment. Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» I. Systems theory» Organizational system s components
A systems view of organizations Resources: Human Materials Equipment Financial Informational Inputs Managerial and technological abilities: Planning Organizing Leading Controlling Technology Transformation process Outcomes: Products and services Profits and losses Employee growth and satisfaction Outputs Feedback from environment Information about: Results Organizational status Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» I. Systems theory» A systems view of organizations
System theory s advantages It can analyze systems at different levels. It provides a framework for assessing how well the various parts of an organization interact to achieve a common purpose. It emphasizes that a change in one part of the system may affect other parts. It considers how an organization interacts with its environment the factors outside the organization that can affect its operations» an organization needs to operate as an open system. Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» I. Systems theory» System theory s advantages
Open systems Open system A system that operates in continual interaction with its environment. Closed system A system that does little or no interacting with its environment and receives little feedback. 3 major characteristics of open systems 1. Negative entropy. 2. Differentiation. 3. Synergy. Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» I. Systems theory» Open systems
Open system s characteristics Entropy The tendency of systems to decay over time. Negative entropy The ability to bring in new energy, in the form of inputs and feedback from the environment, in order to delay or arrest entropy. Differenciation The tendency of open systems to become more complex. Synergy The ability of the whole to equal more than the sum of its parts. Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» I. Systems theory» Open systems» Characteristics
II. Contingency theory Contingency theory A viewpoint that argues that appropriate managerial action depends on the particular parameters of the situation. Areas of contingency The contingency approach applies particularly in such areas as: Environmental factors. Strategy. Organizational design. Technology. Leadership. Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» II. Contingency theory
Contingency theory (2) Contingency view Appropriate managerial action depends on the situation. Universal view Same managerial principles apply to every situation. Situation 2 Situation 1 Situation 3 Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» II. Contingency theory (2)
III. Emerging views Everging views Management is a complex endeavor» Innovative approaches are constantly needed to help advance the knowledge base» Some new approaches develop into major viewpoints when research and managerial practice show that they are effective. Japanese management An approach that focuses on aspects of management in Japan that may be appropriate for adoption in the United States. Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» III. Emerging views
Theory Z Theory Z A concept that combines positive aspects of American and Japanese management into a modified approach aimed at increasing US managerial effectiveness while remaining compatible with the norms and values of American society and culture. Author: William Ouchi [born 1943] Companies that have adopted aspects of Theory Z: General Motors, Ford, Hewlett-Packard, Intel Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» III. Emerging views» Theory Z
Theory Z (2) Type A (American) Short-term employment Individual DM Individual responsibility Rapid evaluation and promotion Explicit, formalized control Specialized career path Segmented concern Type Z (modified American) Long-term employment Consensual decision making Individual responsibility Slow evaluation and promotion Implicit, informal control with explicit, formalized measures Moderately specialized career path Holistic concern, including family Type J (Japanese) Lifetime employment Consensual DM Collective responsibility Slow evaluation and promotion Implicit, informal control Nonspecialized career path Holistic concern Outline» G. Contemporary viewpoints» III. Emerging views» Theory Z (2)
Dan C. Lungescu, PhD, assistant professor 2015-2016