1 Variations in the evaporation rate of a cryogenic liquid on a water surface Harri K. Kytömaa, Ph.D., P.E. Timothy L. Morse, Ph.D.
2 Biography of the Authors Dr. Harri K. Kytömaa, Ph.D., P.E. Corporate Vice President and Director of the Thermal Science Practice, Exponent Inc. Performs research in cryogenic fluid mechanics, heat transfer and phase change phenomena. Worked on numerous LNG projects with the industry in the US and internationally and has published extensively in this area. Member of the ISO TC67, WG10 working group that is developing a guidance document on the major hazards associated with the planning and design of onshore LNG facilities and associated marine activities. Has held several positions, including that of Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. Timothy L. Morse, Ph.D. Senior Associate, Thermal Science Practice, Exponent tinc. Performs research in thermal and flow processes, including cryogenic fluid mechanics. Extensive experience in experimental techniques for fluid dynamic and thermodynamic systems. Previously a researcher in the Fluid Mechanics Research Laboratories at Cornell University. Conducted research in fluid-structure interaction.
3 Background: Previous studies on LNG evaporation Authors Year Test name Evaporation rate (kg/s m 2 ) Blackmore et al. 1982 Maplin Sands tests, 1980 0.085 Burgess et al. 1970 U.S. Bureau of Mines, lab tests 0.181 Burgess et al. 1972 U.S. Bureau of Mines, pond tests 0.155 Feldbauer et al. [Hightower et. al. 2004] 1972 Esso tests, Matagorda Bay 0.195 Boyle & Kneebone [Hightower et. al. 2004] 1972 Shell, lab tests 0024 0 0.024 0.195 Valencia-Chavez & Reed 1979 Lab scale, pure methane 0.05 0.23 Valencia-Chavez & Reed 1979 Lab scale, tertiary LNG 0.02 0.28 Fay 2003 Theoretical 0.21 0.30 Conrado & Vesovic 2000 Theoretical; film boiling 0.072 Klimenko and Shelepen 1982 Theoretical; film boiling correlation 0073 0.073 Range: 0.02 to 0.30
4 Background: Hissong, D.W. (2007) Keys to modeling LNG spills on water. J. of Haz. Mat. Vol. 140, p. 465-477 Identified turbulence as an important factor Defined a turbulence factor to adjust the heat transfer coefficient between water and LNG Turbulence factor determined empirically from LNG evaporation tests Turbulence factor depends on spill velocity
5 Background: LN 2 Tests Presented at AICHE 2010 Spring Meeting Liquid nitrogen thickness has a large effect on evaporation rate (unexpected result) Evaporation ra ate (kg/s m 2 ) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Thickness of LN 2 (cm) Quantified evaporation rate dependence on turbulence intensity (kg/s m 2 ) Evaporation rate 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 u rms (m/s)
6 Modeling LNG spills Models typically assume a constant evaporation rate Spill rate Evaporation rate Spread rate
7 Factors affecting evaporation rate air temperature wind speed spill thickness turbulence intensity interface speed water temperature water salinity
8 Testing Setup vapor out Double-walled acrylic tube ID = 17.3 cm Submerged jet Centrifugal pump Control valve Nozzle (1.3 cm diameter) LNG poured on top up to ~7 cm thick double walled tube turbulent surface turbulent jet nozzle vapor cryogenic liquid water flow control valve pump
Front view 9 Testing Setup Top view Vent Port Fill Port Orifice Pressure Relief Valve Jet nozzle
10 Experimental measurements vapor out Evaporation rate double walled tube turbulent surface vapor cryogenic liquid Pressure (in cylinder) Temperature at orifice Orifice size Mass flow rate through orifice turbulent jet nozzle water Turbulence intensity Measure water height fluctuations at the centerline flow control valve u 2 = 2g Δh 2 pump u rms = 2 u
11 Water surface height htmeasurements Rod Light source
12 Water surface height htmeasurements Optical setup Example image Surface surface Rod Cylinder Rod Image processing h(t)
13 Water surface height htmeasurements 0.4 Turbulen nce intensity ms (m/s) u rm 03 0.3 0.2 0.1 present results Hu (1993) 0.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Jet flow rate (GPM)
14 Example LN 2 evaporation run u rms = 0.12 m/s bursts
15 Effect of liquid nitrogen height 3 runs Varying initial thickness Plot vs. thickness remaining Data collapses onto single trend
16 Effect of cryogenic liquid height (LN 2 ) 0.7 0.6 Evaporation rate (kg/s m 2 ) 05 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Thickness of LN 2 (cm)
17 Effect of water turbulence (LN 2 ) (avg. thickness ~ 2 cm) 0.6 0.5 Evapora ation rate (kg/s m 2 ) 04 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 u rms (m/s) Increasing turbulence intensity
18 Example LNG evaporation run u rms = 0.22 m/s
Thickness Effect: LN 2 u rms = 0.12 m/s 19 LNG vs. LN 2 Evaporation rate much more dependent on liquid thickness for liquid nitrogen LNG u rms = 0.22 m/s
20 Effect of water turbulence (LNG) (avg. thickness ~ 2 cm) 0.4 kg/s m 2 ) Evapor ration rate ( 0.3 0.2 0.1 0? ICE (tests cannot be run) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 u rms (m/s) Increasing turbulence intensity
21 Previous investigations Authors Year Test name Evaporation rate (kg/s m 2 ) Blackmore et al. 1982 Maplin Sands tests, 1980 0.085 Burgess et al. 1970 U.S. Bureau of Mines, lab tests 0.181 Burgess et al. 1972 U.S. Bureau of Mines, pond tests 0.155 Feldbauer et al. [Hightower et. al. 2004] 1972 Esso tests, Matagorda Bay 0.195 Boyle & Kneebone [Hightower et. al. 2004] 1972 Shell, lab tests 0.024 0.195 Valencia-Chavez & Reed 1979 Lab scale, pure methane 0.05 0.23 Valencia-Chavez & Reed 1979 Lab scale, tertiary LNG 0.02 0.28 Fay 2003 Theoretical 021 0 0.21 0.30 Conrado & Vesovic 2000 Theoretical; film boiling 0.072 Klimenko and Shelepen 1982 Theoretical; film boiling correlation 0.073 Present results 0.12 0.27 (depending on turbulence intensity)
22 Range of LNG Evaporation Data 0.35 03 0.3 Ev vaporation Rat te (kg/s m 2 ) 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 Present results Extrapolated to zero turbulence
23 Conclusions 1. Evaporation rate can vary significantly 2. Depends on: Turbulence intensity liquid layer thickness (other factors) (strongly) (less so for LNG) 0.4 3. These factors should be included in spill models Evaporation rate (k kg/s m 2 ) 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 u rms (m/s)
24 Future Work 1. Incorporate results into spill model 2. Quantify other factors affecting evaporation rate 3. Determine underlying mechanism for thickness effect
25 Acknowledgements Distrigas of Massachusetts Frank Katulac For providing the LNG used in these tests MIT Cryogenic Laboratory Prof Joseph Smith MIT Cryogenic Laboratory Prof. Joseph Smith For use of cryogenic equipment
Supplemental Material 26
27 Why is there a layer thickness effect? Increased pressure at interface? Nucleate Boiling Height effect 1 cm LN 2 : hydrostatic pressure = 0.01 psi Film Boiling Varying orifice size (¼ to ½ ) Cylinder pressure = 0.0505 to 1 psi No noticeable effect on Evaporation
28 Effect of water turbulence (LN 2 ) (avg. thickness ~ 2 cm) 0.6 0.5 Evapora ation rate (kg/s m 2 ) 04 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Orifice size Evap. Rate (kg /m 2 s) Typ. Pressure (psi) 1/2 0.1953 0.06 3/8 0.1897 0.17 1/4" 0.2002 1.0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 u rms (m/s) Increasing turbulence intensity
29 Why is there a layer thickness effect? Heat transfer through walls? acrylic air Natural a gas vapor LNG water 2 W Based on simple 1-D heat transfer, with LNG thickness of 1 cm (LN 2 similar) N 2 gas 1000 W Based on a typical evaporation rate of 0.2 kg/m 2 s Also: evaporation tests on iced over water shows no thickness effect