Basic Survival Chemistry Francis Glode hclo3.tk Notation: The numbers in parentheses indicate the reaction temperature in Celsius. RT indicates that the reaction proceeds at room temperature. <RT indicates that the reaction is carried below room temperature, but above 0 C. The chemicals written above a reaction arrow are catalysts for the process. Disclaimer: All experiments in this text should be done outside or in a fume hood with proper safety equipment. They must be done by, or under the direct supervision of, someone experienced with chemical laboratory procedures. They must never be done in the presence of young children or animals. Field Assay of Minerals: Below are the most basic mineral tests. The reagents required to carry out these tests can be made or acquired simply. These tests are useful to determine the content of mineral. Below is a short list of basic materials and reagents for spot-testing of minerals and a short description about their fabrication. Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ): Sodium carbonate can be made by the Leblanc process and the Solvay process. Both of these processes are documented in volume 1 of Lab-Scale Industrial Processes. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ): Sodium bicarbonate can be made by the Leblanc and Solvay processes. It can be used as a replacement for sodium carbonate in most cases. Sodium hexametaphosphate (NaPO 3 or NH 4 NaHPO4): Sodium hexametaphosphate can be made by reacting bone, sulphuric acid, and ammonia. Sodium hexamethaphosphate synthesis will be documented in the next volume of Lab-Scale Industrial Processes. Charcoal (C): Charcoal can be made via the pyrolysis of wood. A 3 x1.5 piece is satisfactory for most purposes. Butane or Methane Torch Glass Tube Silver Sheet Mortar and Pestle (Small)
Test for Sulphide, Selenide, and Tellurides: In this test, a small amount of mineral powder is mixed with sodium carbonate and melted on charcoal. When in reducing, basic conditions, all sulphates, selenates, and tellurates will be reduced to sodium sulphide, sodium selenide, and sodium telluride, respectively. A pinch of this melt is added on silver, and a drop of water added. A black stain will develop if any sulphur, tellurium or selenium was present in the mineral. The Open Glass Tube Test: In this test, a sample of mineral is heated in an open 25 o Glass tube. The glass tube has an inside diameter of about ¼ (7 mm) and a length of about a foot (30 cm). The glass tube must have one side parallel to the ground, and the other side pointing up. The idea is that the hot gases rising in the tube will draw in fresh oxygen. A sample of the mineral is put in the glass tube, near the bend. The sample is heated, and the results noted. A metallic coating in the tube that turns to small beads when rubbed indicates a mercury-bearing mineral. If a white, crystalline ring is formed where the tube is cold, an arsenic-bearing mineral is present. The oxidized material can be analysed in the phosphate bead test. Test for Transition Metal Ions: The phosphate bead test is a test for transition metals ions. It consists of heating an amount of sodium hexametaphosphate on a nickel or platinum wire loop, and when the bead is melted, a small amount of the mineral powder is added, and the bead is heated again. The bead may be heated in an oxidizing or a reducing flame. When the bed is in the flame, it is in a reducing environment. When the bed is over the flame, it is in an oxidizing environment. Oxidizing flame Amount of Chemicals Reducing flame Hot Cold material Elements Hot Cold Very pale Colorless Much Ta, Cd Very pale Colorless Very pale Colorless Much Pb, Sb, Bi Gray Gray Very pale Colorless Much Nb Brown Brown Very pale Colorless Medium W Dirty blue Fine blue Yellow Colorless Medium Ce Colorless Colorless Yellow Colorless Little Fe Very pale Colorless ish Yellow Pale ish Medium U Pale dirty Fine Yellowish Colorless Mo Dirty Fine Deep to brownish red Yellow to almost colorless Medium to much Fe Red,, to ish Almost colorless to violet Yellow to Yellow Little to V Dirty Fine gray deep Reddish to brownish red Green Yellow to reddish Rather pale blue Little to Ni Reddish to brownish red Little Cu Pale ish Yellow to reddish Pale blue, nearly
colorless, at time ruby red Dark Blue Medium Cu Brownish Opaque red Dirty Fine Little to Cr Dirty Fine Blue Blue Little to Co Blue Blue Grayish violet Violet Medium Mn Colorless Colorless Pale rose Pale rose Much Nd Pale rose Pale rose Compounds: Mercury (II) sulfide (HgS): Mercury (II) sulfide is found as the rare mineral cinnabar, a red powder. It is insoluble in water and very easily bought. It is used as a vermillion pigment. Calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ): Calcium carbonate is found as seashells, marble, limestone, and many other minerals. It is insoluble and extremely common. It can be found mostly everywhere as limestone using the acid test. In this test, a small piece of rock is dissolved in acid. If off-gassing occurs, it may indicate carbonate. If, upon addition of a soluble sulfate salt, a white precipitate is formed, it probably indicate the presence of calcium. This compound is white to gray in color. Basic lead carbonate (Pb 2 CO 3 (OH) 2 ): Formerly used as a pigment, this compound is also known as white lead, and can be made easily by reacting lead in a acetic acid and CO 2 atmosphere, without direct contact with the acetic acid. This compound is white. Lead orthoplumbate (Pb 3 O 4 ): Commonly referred to as red lead, this compound is a powerful oxidizing agent that is generally used in dry state for fusion, or used as a very versatile oxidizer in many solid-state reactions needing oxygen. This compound is orange to red in color. Acetic acid (CH 3 COOH): Commonly referred to as vinegar, it is commonly available in a range of concentrations from 5 to 10%, but 99% acetic acid is also sold as glacial acetic acid, and can be made by dry distillation of sodium acetate and sulfuric acid or a bisulfate salt. Sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ): Sulfuric acid is an oily, clear liquid with very strong acidic properties when pure, and is commonly used as a battery acid. Most sulphuric acid is diluted, and must be concentrated by heating to 300 degree Celsius in glass or enameled equipment. This compound is very dangerous when pure, so take precautions. Iron (IV) disulfide (FeS 2 ): This compound is commonly found as the mineral pyrite, also known as fools gold. It is very easily found in nature as cubic crystals with a metallic luster. This compound is metallic gray to in color. Iron (II) sulfide (FeS): This is produced by the reduction of sulfur with iron and by the thermal decomposition of pyrite. It can be used to make hydrogen sulfide. It is black in color, and is pyrophoric when finely powdered. Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ): Sodium carbonate is commonly used as a base and as a drying agent. It can replace sodium hydroxide in the majority of the cases. This compound is white. Sodium chloride (NaCl): Sodium chloride is commonly referred to as salt. Deposits of this compound are found as halite crystals, and an impure form can be obtained by evaporating sea water. This compound is also used as a facile source of chloride ions. This compound is white.
Mercury (Hg): Also known as quicksilver, this noble metal occurs very rarely in nature via the oxidation of cinnabar deposits. It is primarily made from cinnabar, its main ore. It is a very dense metal, heavier than lead, and is very expensive. This element is gray, metallic liquid. Chlorine (Cl 2 ): Chlorine is a toxic, gas that is deadly in high concentrations. In lower concentrations, it is much less dangerous, and has been linked to liver and dental damage in chronic contact. This compound is the most used synthetic oxidizing agent. Manganese dioxide (MnO 2 ): Quite common as its mineral pyrolusite, this compound is a very stable oxidising agent, with low health risks due to being highly insoluble. It is extremely prone to staining. This compound is commonly found in alkaline batteries. This compound is black, and reacts with HCl to produce chlorine gas. Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ): Sulfur dioxide is an asphyxiating gas with reducing properties. It can be used as a direct precursor to sulphuric acid. Carbon (C): Carbon can be easily made via the pyrolysis of wood. It is the cheapest reducing agent and is a very useful fuel to heat reactions. In the usual method of production, a wood pile is set up with good air access, and when the fire is going, dirt is piled around so that there is one inlet near the ground and one outlet on the top. After a few hours, the dirt is searched for charcoal. This compound is black. Calcium oxide/ Calcium hydroxide (CaO/Ca(OH) 2 ): These are the most commonly used bases in industry, because they are very cheap and easily made. The usual method is via a lime kiln. Both compounds are white powders. Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl) 2 ): This compound is commonly found as a source of chlorine for pools. It is a strong oxidizing agent, is stable, and is not prone to decomposition. This compound is white. Bases: CaCO 3 CaO + CO 2 (800 C) CaO + H 2 O Ca(OH) 2 (RT) Na 2 SO 4 + 4C + CaCO 3 Na 2 CO 3 + 4CO + CaS (900 C) Acids: 4FeS 2 + 15O 2 + 4 H 2 O 8H 2 SO 4 + 2Fe 2 O 3 (500 C) 2NaCl + H 2 SO 4 Na 2 SO 4 + 2HCl (100 C) 3NO 2 + H 2 O 2HNO 3 + NO (<RT) 2H 2 O + O 2 + 2SO 2 2H 2 SO 4 (RT) 2SO 2 + O 2 2SO 3 (500 C) Oxidizers: 4HCl + O 2 2Cl 2 + 2H 2 O (400 C) 2Cl 2 +2Ca(OH) 2 CaCl 2 + Ca(OCl) 2 + 2H 2 O (RT)
4HCl + MnO 2 MnCl 2 + Cl 2 + 2H 2 O (50 C) 2MnCl 2 + 2Ca(OH) 2 + O 2 2MnO 2 + 2CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O (RT) 3Pb 2 CO 3 (OH) 2 + O 2 2Pb 3 O 4 + 3CO 2 + 3H 2 O (375 C) Reducers: C x H 2x O x xc + x H 2 O (600 C) 6C + 2O 2 + Fe 2 O 3 2Fe + 6CO 2 (600-1600 C) SO 2 + Na 2 CO 3 Na 2 SO 3 + CO 2 (RT) Miscellaneous: HgS + Fe FeS + Hg (600 C) HgS + O 2 SO 2 + Hg (500 C) CaC 2 + N 2 CaCN 2 + C (1100 C) CaCN 2 + 3H 2 O 2NH 3 + CaCO 3 (100 C)
Conclusion: Survival chemistry is mostly based on natural resources. Some may not be avaible in your country; as such it may be interesting to read on exploited mineral, and all mineral found in your country. Most of these experiments can be done in enameled steel, glass or bare iron. Judgement applies. Iron is only for bases and reducing agent, glass is for low temp acid or neutral reaction as well as oxidizers and enameled is for high temp acid reaction. High temperature reaction needs hardwood charcoal and compressed air for heating. Thanks to: Francisco Gomez (Vargouille) for the complete revision of this document