Sweden s nuclear fuel cycle policy Björn Skala Ministry for Foreign Affairs Enheten för nedrustning och icke-spridning (NIS), Sweden Abstract. Sweden is a long established utilizer of nuclear power for peaceful purposes. At present 10 reactors cover some 44% of national electricity supply (64, 3 TWh). Original plans to develop all major parts of fuel cycle were abandoned, to-day mainly power generation and fuel element production and advanced schemes for final disposal and storage of nuclear waste. 1980 referendum recommended phasing-out of nuclear energy but has not been implemented for various reasons. While two reactors were closed, remaining 10 are being gradually upgraded and likely to be in use until sufficient alternatives have been developed. The question remains highly political. While political parties hesitate to reopen the issue, public opinion is increasingly in favour of keeping nuclear energy. An earlier law prohibiting research into new reactor technology has been repealed. R and D go mainly into methods for safe long-time storage of nuclear waste. Sweden participates actively in the ongoing international discussion on new schemes to establish proliferation proof international nuclear fuel cycle centers, particularly relating to enrichment and reprocessing (MNA s) 1. Background and history Sweden as an advanced industrial state - became involved with nuclear energy very soon after the conclusion of World War Two had demonstrated the devastating effects of nuclear military power. Starting already in 1945 first plans were formulated for research into the possible peaceful applications of nuclear energy and the exploitation of Sweden s vast natural uranium resources contained in shale deposits. The military implications of nuclear weapons received attention, relating in particular to defensive and protective measures. Early plans were quite ambitious and foresaw the possibility of developing major parts of the fuel cycle. Gradually, however, for economic and political reasons, and as the international debate on nuclear energy and possible concomitant proliferation of sensitive technology Sweden preferred to rely on the international market for enrichment and reprocessing services. It concentrated on reactor technology and construction, fuel fabrication and R and D into the safe running of reactors and the treatment, disposal and storage of spent fuel and radioactive waste products. As early as August 1945 the Swedish Government took first organizational steps to formulate guide lines for nuclear research and peaceful nuclear applications. There was also a need to consider the military aspects of nuclear power and formulate defensive and protective policies in case of a possible nuclear threat. However, from the outset there was also an interest in investigating the possibilities of manufacturing a nuclear weapon. Considerable expertise was gained in the Swedish defence research establishment but for a number of reasons, political, economical and security related, it became gradually evident that the military option was not desirable. In deciding in 1968 to 1
sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty Sweden finally abandoned any plans to acquire nuclear weapons. Incidentally, Swedish technical know-how has been helpful in giving Sweden some influence in international nuclear disarmament and control negotiations. The first Swedish nuclear research reactor started in 1954 and another one in 1961. The first energy producing reactor became operational in 1963 and was a Swedish construction using Swedish natural uranium and Norwegian heavy water. Gradually, from 1972 til 1985 11 light water reactors came on line at three major locations in Sweden. They were built by ASEA of Sweden and US Westinghouse. One fuel fabrication plant produces PWR and BWR fuel with a licensed limit on production capacity of a maximum of 600 tonnes of uranium oxide per year and an enrichment of maximum 5 % U235. The Swedish reactors have, on an average, covered nearly half of Sweden s electricity consumption, which put Sweden in the forefront of countries relying on nuclear energy production. Together with a strong hydropower potential and a dwindling use of heating oil and nearly none of natural gas this has given Sweden a strong and independent energy position. 2. Debate and present situation However, as is well-known, nuclear energy has been and remains a hotly debated issue for reasons of safety and non-proliferation. After the 1979 Three Mile Island accident a 1980 referendum in Sweden resulted in a generally negative attitude towards continued reliance on nuclear energy. It was decided that the 12 reactors planned should be completed but that there would be no further construction beyond that. Nuclear power was to be discarded by 2010 provided it would not endanger employment and general welfare. Since then the future of nuclear energy has been the subject of constant debate and compromise between parties and within government. The end date of 2010 was abandoned in 1997 in favour of a broad agreement to aim for a reorientation of energy production towards alternative energies, improved efficiency and energy saving. As one result of these discussions and also from a desire to meet strong concern from the Danish public opinion and Government, it was decided in 1991 and 2005 to close two main reactors on the southern Swedish coast line a few kilometres away from the Danish capital Copenhagen. The fate of nuclear energy in Sweden continues to be hotly debated but it seems likely that it will remain as one important pillar of energy production for a long time still. Alternatives are slow in coming and the current debate on climate change resulting from the burning of fossil fuels has somewhat changed the view of nuclear energy. The needs of Sweden s large heavy industries, employment considerations and the facts of a Northern climate has somewhat tempered the desire to move hastily on this complicated issue. It remains the stated goal of important parties but there are also those who wish to consider new reactor construction. 3. Public opinion and recent Government action 2
Public opinion, to conclude from periodic opinion polls, seems generally to be in a majority for continued reliance on nuclear power. Perhaps symbolically, the present Swedish Government has recently repealed a law enacted at the height of public debate in the 1990`s which prohibited research into new reactor design and construction. The Government is also granting the power industry licenses to upgrade the producing capacity of existing facilities. All in all, this will result in an addition of 1.3 GWe of nuclear power which corresponds to the output of one large reactor. The total installed electrical power of the ten reactors would rise from 9.2 to 10.5 GWe. In its new research budget the Government also stresses the need for Sweden to maintain its competence, to engage in basic research and to participate in important international cooperation projects relating to Fourth generation nuclear technology. Additional and growing funding will be provided for this purpose. Sweden s electricity consumption has remained stationary over the last decade at around 146 TWh and the share of nuclear energy has equally remained fairly constant at around 45 46 % (with an almost identical share for hydropower). This makes Sweden one of the biggest users of nuclear energy, relatively speaking, within the EU and world-wide. Nuclear power seems bound to remain an important and dynamic part of electricity production in Sweden for a considerable time still. 4. Spent fuel management Sweden thus runs a fairly large national nuclear energy programme but has abstained from uranium milling, enrichment and reprocessing. Enrichment services are obtained on the international market. Initially, Sweden also sent spent fuel abroad for reprocessing (mainly Sellafield in the UK). During the late 1970 s attitudes to reprocessing changed and it was, for a number of reasons, not considered an acceptable method of management of spent fuel. Sweden then started to develop an ambitious programme of direct disposal without reprocessing. This advanced programme has aroused general international interest and attention. Even though comprehensive and very active programmes for the management and disposal of spent fuel and radioactive waste are thus being established, many challenges remain. Over the next 5 15 years several new facilities will be sited, constructed and taken into operation, e.g. an encapsulation plant and a repository for spent fuel. These activities will require substantial efforts from both the nuclear industry and the regulatory bodies. Spent fuel in Sweden emanates mainly from four commercial nuclear power plant instalations, one material testing reactor and one research reactor. The radioactive waste originates from the nuclear power industry as a well as medical use, industry, research and consumer products. Past research activities have also generated some waste, which is either stored or has already been disposed of. Under Swedish law, the holder of a licence to operate a nuclear facility is primarily responsible for the safe handling and disposal of spent fuel and radioactive waste, as well as for decommissioning and dismantling the facility. The four utilities operating nuclear power stations in Sweden have formed a special company, the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Company (SKB), to assist them in executing their responsibilities. SKB is thus responsible for 3
all handling, transportation and storage of spent fuel and radioactive waste outside the nuclear power plants. Furthermore, the company is responsible for the planning and construction of all facilities required for the management of spent fuel and radioactive waste and for such R & D work which is necessary for establishing such facilities. SKB is further responsible for coordination and investigations regarding the costs associated with nuclear waste and future decommissioning of reactors. The expenses incurred are to be covered by revenues from the production of nuclear energy. Spent fuel is transported to an interim storage facility (Clab). Radioactive operational waste from nuclear reactors, medical and research institutions and industrial nuclear waste is disposed of in an underground repository in crystalline bedrock. The central interim storage is situated at one of the nuclear power plants. The fuel is stored in water pools in two rock caverns at 25 m depth in the bedrock. The current total storage capacity is 8000 tonnes uranium and the facility can accept an amount of spent fuel equivalent to 300 tonnes uranium per year. Since all Swedish reactors are situated by the sea, transportation is performed using a specially constructed ship. Facilities that remain to be realized are an encapsulation plant for spent fuel and repositories for spent fuel, long-lived low and intermediate level waste and for decommissioning waste. SKB R & D is at present focussing on these matters and advanced plans exist to undertake these programmes and work to decide on a final deep geological repository for spent fuel has continued according to plan. Two communities are investigated as possible locations for the final repository and a decision is expected during 2009. Licence applications to the Government will follow after that. 5. International aspects In line with its national nuclear power policy, as described above, which consciously centers on energy production, some fuel fabrication and the back-end of the fuel cycle but relies on the existing international market for enrichment (and previously reprocessing), Sweden actively supports current schemes which aim at multilateral and internationally managed and controlled fuel cycle centers (MNA s). In all modesty, Sweden believes that its own positive experiences in this respect (as well as that of other similar countries such as Finland, Switzerland and Belgium) could serve as useful reference in the ongoing international debate on the MNA issue. Sweden is, finally, eager to share its knowledge and competence in reactor safety and security, concerning safeguards and in the handling and disposing of spent fuel and radioactive waste and is to these ends an active member of the IAEA and other international organizations involved with nuclear power. The locations of existing nuclear facilities in Sweden are shown in the annexed figure. 4
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