Responsive Classroom

K 6 Performance Expectations Correlation: Doing Science in Morning Meeting A guide to the activities and activity extensions in Doing Science in Morning Meeting by Lara Webb and Margaret Berry Wilson that you can use to help support your teaching of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) Performance Expectations. Note: Because this book is not intended to be a science curriculum, but to supplement your science curriculum, only those NGSS Performance Expectations addressed in this book are listed in these tables. Kindergarten... 2 Grade 1... 3 Grade 2... 4 Grade 3... 5 Grade 4... 6 Grade 5... 8 Grade 6...10 Responsive Classroom www.responsiveclassroom.org

K Next Generation Science Standards K-PS2 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions K-PS2-1 Plan and conduct an investigation to compare the effects of different strengths Balloon Bop, p. 20; The Force of Wind, p. 24 or different directions of pushes and pulls on the motion of an object. K-PS2-2 Analyze data to determine if a design solution works as intended to change the Balloon Bop, p. 20; The Force of Wind, p. 24 speed or direction of an object with a push or a pull. K-PS3 Energy K-PS3-1 Make observations to determine the effect of sunlight on Earth s surface. A Heated Exchange, p. 11; Disappearing Water, p. 27 K-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes K-LS1-1 Use observations to describe patterns of what plants and animals (including Animal Homes, p. 12; Five Senses, p. 15; Habitat humans) need to survive. Favorites, p. 16; Take a Walk, p. 17; I Can, Can You?, p. 22; Just Nesting, p. 28; What s in the Soil?, p. 30 K-ESS2 Earth s Systems K-ESS2-1 Use and share observations of local weather conditions to describe patterns A Heated Exchange, p. 11; Why I like This Season, p. 18; over time. Weather Center, p. 25; Disappearing Water, p. 27 K-ESS2-2 Construct an argument supported by evidence for how plants and animals Animal Homes, p. 12; Habitat Favorites, p. 16; (including humans) can change the environment to meet their needs. What s in the Soil?, p. 30 K-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity K-ESS3-1 Use a model to represent the relationship between the needs of different Animal Homes, p. 12; Habitat Favorites, p. 16; plants or animals (including humans) and the places they live. Just Nesting, p. 28 K-ESS3-2 Ask questions to obtain information about the purpose of weather Disappearing Water, p. 27 forecasting to prepare for, and respond to, severe weather. K 2-ETS1 Engineering Design K 2-ETS1-1 Ask questions, make observations, and gather information about a situation Who Sank the Boat?, p. 26; What to Wear, p. 29 people want to change to define a simple problem that can be solved through the development of a new or improved object or tool. K 2-ETS1-2 Develop a simple sketch, drawing, or physical model to illustrate how the Take a Walk, p. 17; Balance Scale, p. 19; Just Nesting, shape of an object helps it function as needed to solve a given problem. p. 28 K 2-ETS1-3 Analyze data from tests of two objects designed to solve the same problem Don t Let It Drop, p. 21; The Force of Wind, p. 24; to compare the strengths and weaknesses of how each performs. Who Sank the Boat?, p. 26; What to Wear, p. 29 NGSS correlation (K 6) for activities in Doing Science in Morning Meeting (www.responsiveclassroom.org/product/doing-science-morning-meeting). 2014 Northeast Foundation for Children, 2015 Center for Responsive Schools 2

1 1-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer 1-PS4-1 Plan and conduct investigations to provide evidence that vibrating materials Phone Call, p. 33; Good Vibrations, p. 41 can make sound and that sound can make materials vibrate. 1-PS4-2 Make observations to construct an evidence-based account that objects can Shine on Me, p. 34; Mirror, Mirror, p. 46; See Through It?, be seen only when illuminated. p. 47 1-PS4-3 Plan and conduct an investigation to determine the effect of placing objects See Through It?, p. 47 made with different materials in the path of a beam of light. 1-PS4-4 Use tools and materials to design and build a device that uses light or sound Phone Call, p. 33; Good Vibrations, p. 41 to solve the problem of communicating over a distance. 1-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes 1-LS1-1 Use materials to design a solution to a human problem by mimicking how Bending Toward the Sun, p. 32; I ll Take That Part, p. 35; plants and/or animals use their external parts to help them survive, grow, Leaf Notes, p. 36; Bee Hive, p. 39; Best Part for the Job, and meet their needs. p. 40; Metamorphosis, p. 42; Trouble at the Root, p. 48; Up It Goes, p. 49; What Is It?, p. 50 1-LS1-2 Read texts and use media to determine patterns in behavior of parents and Baby Animals, p. 31; My Family Needs Me, p. 37; offspring that help offspring survive. Patterns All Around, p. 38; Metamorphosis, p. 42 1-LS3 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits 1-LS3-1 Make observations to construct an evidence-based account that young plants Baby Animals, p. 31; Bending Toward the Sun, p. 32; My and animals are like, but not exactly like, their parents. Family Needs Me, p. 37; Bee Hive, p. 39; Metamorphosis, p. 42 1-ESS1 Earth s Place in the Universe 1-ESS1-1 Use observations of the sun, moon, and stars to describe patterns that can be Shine on Me, p. 34; Moon Line-Up, p. 44; Telescope Tall predicted. Tales, p. 45 1-ESS1-2 Make observations at different times of the year to relate the amount of Shine on Me, p. 34; Telescope Tall Tales, p. 45 daylight to the time of year. K 2-ETS1 Engineering Design K 2-ETS1-1 Ask questions, make observations, and gather information about a situation Phone Call, p. 33; Telescope Tall Tales, p. 45 people want to change to define a simple problem that can be solved through the development of a new or improved object or tool. K 2-ETS1-2 Develop a simple sketch, drawing, or physical model to illustrate how the shape Mirror, Mirror, p. 46; Up It Goes, p. 49 of an object helps it function as needed to solve a given problem. K 2-ETS1-3 Analyze data from tests of two objects designed to solve the same problem to Phone Call, p. 33; Good Vibrations, p. 41; Mix It Up, p. 43; compare the strengths and weaknesses of how each performs. See Through It?, p. 47; Up It Goes, p. 49 3

2 2-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions 2-PS1-1 Plan and conduct an investigation to describe and classify different kinds of Science Friction, p. 52; Push-Pull, p. 56; Roll With It, p. 69 materials by their observable properties. 2-PS1-2 Analyze data obtained from testing different materials to determine which Push-Pull, p. 56; From Here to There, p. 67; materials have the properties that are best suited for an intended purpose. Roll With It, p. 69 2-PS1-4 Construct an argument with evidence that some changes caused by heating Science Friction, p. 52; Reversible or Not?, p. 57; or cooling can be reversed and some cannot. Melt It, p. 68 2-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics 2-LS2-1 Plan and conduct an investigation to determine if plants need sunlight and Soil Selection, p. 70 water to grow. 2-LS2-2 Develop a simple model that mimics the function of an animal in dispersing Seed Travels, p. 53; Honeybee Dance, p. 62 seeds or pollinating plants. 2-LS4 Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity 2-LS4-1 Make observations of plants and animals to compare the diversity of life in Can t Live Without It, p. 55; Venn Diagrams, p. 59; different habitats. Animal Surprise, p. 60; A Poem for Two Voices: Glorious Ocean, p. 61; Honeybee Dance, p. 62; How Did You Get Here?, p. 63 2-ESS1 Earth s Place in the Universe 2-ESS1-1 Make observations from media to construct an evidence-based account that Paleontologist, p. 66 Earth events can occur quickly or slowly. 2-ESS2 Earth s Systems 2-ESS2-3 Obtain information to identify where water is found on Earth and that it can Melt It, p. 68 be solid or liquid. K 2-ETS1 Engineering Design K 2-ETS1-1 Ask questions, make observations, and gather information about a situation people want to change to define a simple problem that can be solved through the development of a new or improved object or tool. Flighty Flight, p. 51; Science Friction, p. 52; What Do You Need?, p. 54; Push-Pull, p. 56; Human Motion Machine, p. 64; If I Built a Car, p. 65; From Here to There, p. 67; Roll With It, p. 69 K 2-ETS1-2 Develop a simple sketch, drawing, or physical model to illustrate how the shape Flighty Flight, p. 51; Push-Pull, p. 56; Human Motion of an object helps it function as needed to solve a given problem. Machine, p. 64; If I Built a Car, p. 65; From Here to There, p. 67 K 2-ETS1-3 Analyze data from tests of two objects designed to solve the same problem to Flighty Flight, p. 51; From Here to There, p. 67; Roll With compare the strengths and weaknesses of how each performs. It, p. 69 4

3 3-PS2 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions 3-PS2-1 Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence of the effects of Human Ramps, p. 71; Simple Machine Charades, p. 83 balanced and unbalanced forces on the motion of an object. 3-PS2-2 Make observations and/or measurements of an object s motion to provide Simple Machine Charades, p. 83 evidence that a pattern can be used to predict future motion. 3-PS2-3 Ask questions to determine cause and effect relationships of electric or magnetic Magnetic, p. 72 interactions between two objects not in contact with each other. 3-PS2-4 Define a simple design problem that can be solved by applying scientific ideas Magnetic, p. 72 about magnets. 3-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes 3-LS1-1 Develop models to describe that organisms have unique and diverse life cycles Seed Match-Up, p. 73; Change, Change, Change, p. 86; but all have in common birth, growth, reproduction, and death. Seeds We Eat, p. 89 3-LS3 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits 3-LS3-1 Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence that plants and animals have traits Seed Match-Up, p. 73 inherited from parents and that variation of these traits exists in a group of similar organisms. 3-LS4 Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity 3-LS4-2 Use evidence to construct an explanation for how the variations in characteristics Stimulus and Response Game, p. 85 among individuals of the same species may provide advantages in surviving, finding mates, and reproducing. 3-LS4-3 Construct an argument with evidence that in a particular habitat some organisms Happy Habitats, p. 76; Local Fauna, p. 77; Seeds We can survive well, some survive less well, and some cannot survive at all. Eat, p. 89 3-LS4-4 Make a claim about the merit of a solution to a problem caused when the environ- Seeds We Eat, p. 89 ment changes and the types of plants and animals that live there may change. 3-ESS2 Earth s Systems 3-ESS2-1 Represent data in tables and graphical displays to describe typical weather Water Cycle, p. 75; Predicting the Weather, p. 87 conditions expected during a particular season. 3-ESS2-2 Obtain and combine information to describe climates in different regions Water Cycle, p. 75; Seeds We Eat, p. 89 of the world. 3 5-ETS1 Engineering Design 3 5-ETS1-1 Define a simple design problem reflecting a need or a want that includes Human Ramps, p. 71; Shadow Shake, p. 74; Building Up, specified criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost. p. 79; Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, p. 88 3 5-ETS1-2 Generate and compare multiple possible solutions to a problem based on how Human Ramps, p. 71; Shadow Shake, p. 74; Building Up, well each is likely to meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. p. 79; Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, p. 88 3 5-ETS1-3 Plan and carry out fair tests in which variables are controlled and failure points Human Ramps, p. 71; Building Up, p. 79 are considered to identify aspects of a model or prototype that can be improved. 5

4 4-PS3 Energy 4-PS3-1 Use evidence to construct an explanation relating the speed of an object to the Energize, p. 99; Human Circuits, p. 100; How High Will energy of that object. This Bounce?, p. 108 4-PS3-2 Make observations to provide evidence that energy can be transferred from Energize, p. 99; Human Circuits, p. 100; Double place to place by sound, light, heat, and electric currents. Meanings, p. 106; Using Electricity Efficiently, p. 110 4-PS3-3 Ask questions and predict outcomes about the changes in energy that occur How High Will This Bounce?, p. 108 when objects collide. 4-PS3-4 Apply scientific ideas to design, test, and refine a device that converts energy Human Circuits, p. 100 from one form to another. 4-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer 4-PS4-1 Develop a model of waves to describe patterns in terms of amplitude and Doing the Wave, p. 91 wavelength and that waves can cause objects to move. 4-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes 4-LS1-1 Construct an argument that plants and animals have internal and external Advantages, p. 97; Changing Traits, p. 98; Vertebrate or structures that function to support survival, growth, behavior, and reproduction. Invertebrate?, p. 103; Let s Get Moving, p. 109 4-LS1-2 Use a model to describe that animals receive different types of information Which One Is Healthier?, p. 96; Advantages, p. 97; through their senses, process the information in their brain, and respond to the Changing Traits, p. 98 information in different ways. 4-ESS1 Earth s Place in the Universe 4-ESS1-1 Identify evidence from patterns in rock formations and fossils in rock layers to Water Shapes the Landscape, p. 92; Class Rocks, p. 94; support an explanation for changes in landscape over time. Rock Song, p. 101 4-ESS2 Earth s Systems 4-ESS2-1 Make observations and/or measurements to provide evidence of the effects of Water Shapes the Landscape, p. 92; Class Rocks, p. 94 weathering or the rate of erosion by water, ice, wind, or vegetation. 4-ESS2-2 Analyze and interpret data from maps to describe patterns of Earth s features. 20 Questions: Land or Water?, p. 102; What on Earth?, p. 104 4-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 4-ESS3-1 Obtain and combine information to describe that energy and fuels are derived Using Electricity Efficiently, p. 110 from natural resources and their uses affect the environment. 4-ESS3-2 Generate and compare multiple solutions to reduce the impacts of natural Earth Tomorrow s Technology, p. 95 processes on humans. C O N T I N U E D 6

4 C O N T I N U E D 3 5-ETS1 Engineering Design 3 5-ETS1-1 Define a simple design problem reflecting a need or a want that includes Tomorrow s Technology, p. 95; How High Will This specified criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost. Bounce?, p. 108 3 5-ETS1-2 Generate and compare multiple possible solutions to a problem based on how Tomorrow s Technology, p. 95; How High Will This well each is likely to meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. Bounce?, p. 108 3 5-ETS1-3 Plan and carry out fair tests in which variables are controlled and failure points Human Circuits, p. 100; Vertebrate or Invertebrate?, are considered to identify aspects of a model or prototype that can be improved. p. 103; How High Will This Bounce?, p. 108 7

5 5-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions 5-PS1-1 Develop a model to describe that matter is made of particles too small to be seen. Atomic Particles, p. 111; Chemical Reaction, p. 113; Smell the Atoms, p. 130 5-PS1-3 Make observations and measurements to identify materials based on their properties. Chemical Reaction, p. 113; Smell the Atoms, p. 130 5-PS1-4 Conduct an investigation to determine whether the mixing of two or more Chemical Reaction, p. 113 substances results in new substances. 5-PS2 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions 5-PS2-1 Support an argument that the gravitational force exerted by Earth on objects Gravity Greeting, p. 114 is directed down. 5-PS3 Energy 5-PS3-1 Use models to describe that energy in animals food (used for body repair, growth, Food Labels, p. 115; Food Web Fun, p. 120; Class motion, and to maintain body warmth) was once energy from the sun. Compost, p. 125; How Much Light?, p. 127 5-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes 5-LS1-1 Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly Food Web Fun, p. 120; Class Compost, p. 125; from air and water. How Much Light?, p. 127 5-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics 5-LS2-1 Develop a model to describe the movement of matter among plants, animals, Food Web Fun, p. 120; Class Compost, p. 125; decomposers, and the environment. How Much Light?, p. 127 5-ESS1 Earth s Place in the Universe 5-ESS1-1 Support an argument that the apparent brightness of the sun and stars is due New Moon, p. 128 to their relative distances from Earth. 5-ESS1-2 Represent data in graphical displays to reveal patterns of daily changes in length New Moon, p. 128 and direction of shadows, day and night, and the seasonal appearance of some stars in the night sky. 5-ESS2 Earth s Systems 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, Big Ideas in Science, p. 119; In the Manner of Water, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. p. 122 5-ESS2-2 Describe and graph the amounts of percentages of water and fresh water in various Big Ideas in Science, p. 119; In the Manner of Water, reservoirs to provide evidence about the distribution of water on Earth. p. 122 5-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity 5-ESS3-1 Obtain and combine information about ways individual communities use We re Helping Out, p. 117; Three Clues, p. 123; Class science ideas to protect the Earth s resources and environment. Compost, p. 125; Current Events in Science, p. 126 C O N T I N U E D 8

5 C O N T I N U E D 3 5-ETS1 Engineering Design 3 5-ETS1-1 Define a simple design problem reflecting a need or a want that includes If I Were an Engineer, p. 121; Three Clues, p. 123; specified criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost. What s in My Lab?, p. 124 3 5-ETS1-2 Generate and compare multiple possible solutions to a problem based on how If I Were an Engineer, p. 121; Three Clues, p. 123; well each is likely to meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. What s n My Lab?, p. 124 3 5-ETS1-3 Plan and carry out fair tests in which variables are controlled and failure points Three Clues, p. 123; What s in My Lab?, p. 124 are considered to identify aspects of a model or prototype that can be improved. 9

6 MS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions MS-PS1-2 Analyze and interpret data on the properties of substances before and after Neutralize, p. 133 the substances interact to determine if a chemical reaction has occurred. MS-PS1-4 Develop a model that predicts and describes changes in particle motion, temper - Shake It Up, p. 144 ature, and state of a pure substance when thermal energy is added or removed. MS-PS1-6 Undertake a design project to construct, test, and modify a device that either Shake It Up, p. 144 releases or absorbs thermal energy by chemical processes. MS-PS2 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions MS-PS2-2 Plan an investigation to provide evidence that the change in an object s motion Pendulums, p. 134; Paper Airplane Challenge, p. 149 depends on the sum of the forces on the object and the mass of the object. MS-PS2-3 Ask questions about data to determine the factors that affect the strength of Energy Around Us, p. 135 electric and magnetic forces. MS-PS3 Energy MS-PS3-1 Construct and interpret graphical displays of data to describe the relationships Pendulums, p. 134; Paper Airplane Challenge, p. 149 of kinetic energy to the mass of an object and to the speed of an object. MS-PS3-2 Develop a model to describe that when the arrangement of objects interacting at Pendulums, p. 134 a distance changes, different amounts of potential energy are stored in the system. MS-PS3-3 Apply scientific principles to design, construct, and test a device that either Energy Around Us, p. 135; Shake It Up, p. 144 minimizes or maximizes thermal energy transfer. MS-PS3-4 Plan an investigation to determine the relationships among the energy Energy Around Us, p. 135; Shake It Up, p. 144 transferred, the type of matter, the mass, and the change in the average kinetic energy of the particles as measured by the temperature of the sample. MS-PS3-5 Construct, use, and present arguments to support the claim that when the Shake It Up, p. 144 motion energy of an object changes, energy is transferred to or from the object. MS-PS4 Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer MS-PS4-1 Use mathematical representations to describe a simple model for waves that Light and Lenses, p. 146 includes how the amplitude of a wave is related to the energy in a wave. MS-PS4-2 Develop and use a model to describe that waves are reflected, absorbed, or Light and Lenses, p. 146 transmitted through various materials. MS-PS4-3 Integrate qualitative scientific and technical information to support the claim Light and Lenses, p. 146 that digitized signals (sent as wave pulses) are a more reliable way to encode and transmit information. C O N T I N U E D 10

6 C O N T I N U E D MS-LS1 From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes MS-LS1-4 Use argument based on empirical evidence and scientific reasoning to support an Last Animal Standing, p. 141; Cross-Pollination, p. 145 explanation for how characteristic animal behaviors and specialized plant structures affect the probability of successful reproduction of animals and plants respectively. MS-LS1-5 Construct a scientific explanation based on evidence for how environmental Ocean Category Scramble, p. 142 and genetic factors influence the growth of organisms. MS-LS2 Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics MS-LS2-1 Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for the effects of resource Ocean Category Scramble, p. 142 availability on organisms and populations of organisms in an ecosystem. MS-LS2-2 Construct an explanation that predicts patterns of interactions among organisms Last Animal Standing, p. 141 across multiple ecosystems. MS-LS2-3 Develop a model to describe the cycling of matter and flow of energy among Ocean Category Scramble, p. 142 living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem. MS-LS2-4 Construct an argument supported by empirical evidence that changes to Ocean Category Scramble, p. 142 physical or biological components of an ecosystem affect populations. MS-LS2-5 Evaluate competing design solutions for maintaining biodiversity and Ocean Category Scramble, p. 142; Cross-Pollination, ecosystem services. p. 145 MS-LS3 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits MS-LS3-2 Develop and use a model to describe why asexual reproduction results in Cross-Pollination, p. 145 offspring with identical genetic information and sexual reproduction results in offspring with genetic variation. MS-LS4 Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity MS-LS4-4 Construct an explanation based on evidence that describes how genetic Last Animal Standing, p. 141 variations of traits in a population increase some individuals probability of surviving and reproducing in a specific environment. MS-LS4-5 Gather and synthesize information about the technologies that have changed Cross-Pollination, p. 145 the way humans influence the inheritance of desired traits in organisms. MS-ESS1 Earth s Place in the Universe MS-ESS1-2 Develop and use a model to describe the role of gravity in the motions within Space Age, p. 148 galaxies and the solar system. MS-ESS1-3 Analyze and interpret data to determine scale properties of objects in the solar Space Age, p. 148 system. C O N T I N U E D 11

6 MS-ESS2 Earth s Systems MS-ESS2-4 Develop a model to describe the cycling of water through Earth s systems driven Guess My Weather Word, p. 140 by energy from the sun and the force of gravity. MS-ESS2-5 Collect data to provide evidence for how the motions and complex interactions Guess My Weather Word, p. 140 of air masses results in changes in weather conditions. MS-ESS2-6 Develop and use a model to describe how unequal heating and rotation of the Guess My Weather Word, p. 140 Earth cause patterns of atmospheric and oceanic circulation that determine regional climates. MS-ESS3 Earth and Human Activity MS-ESS3-1 Construct a scientific explanation based on evidence for how the uneven Years of Trash, p. 137 distributions of Earth s mineral, energy, and groundwater resources are the result of past and current geoscience processes. MS-ESS3-3 Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing Years of Trash, p. 137; Scientific Pros and Cons, p. 143 a human impact on the environment. MS-ESS3-4 Construct an argument supported by evidence for how increases in human Years of Trash, p. 137 population and per-capita consumption of natural resources impact Earth's systems. MS-ETS1 Engineering Design MS-ETS1-1 Define the criteria and constraints of a design problem with sufficient precision Years of Trash, p. 137; Gadget Challenge, p. 139; to ensure a successful solution, taking into account relevant scientific principles Scientific Pros and Cons, p. 143; Light and Lenses, p. 146; and potential impacts on people and the natural environment that may limit Safety First, p. 147; Paper Airplane Challenge!, p. 149 possible solutions. MS-ETS1-2 Evaluate competing design solutions using a systematic process to determine Gadget Challenge, p. 139; Scientific Pros and Cons, p. 143; how well they meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. Light and Lenses, p. 146; Safety First, p. 147; Paper Airplane Challenge!, p. 149 MS-ETS1-3 Analyze data from tests to determine similarities and differences among several Gadget Challenge, p. 139; Light and Lenses, p. 146; design solutions to identify the best characteristics of each that can be combined Paper Airplane Challenge!, p. 149 into a new solution to better meet the criteria for success. MS-ETS1-4 Develop a model to generate data for iterative testing and modification of a Gadget Challenge, p. 139; Light and Lenses, p. 146; proposed object, tool, or process such that an optimal design can be achieved. Paper Airplane Challenge, p. 149 12