ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF URBANIZATION 6.1 Introduction: A beautiful environment generates beautiful minds and beautiful minds lead to creativity. As one contemplates the alluring words spoken by Dr. A.P.J.Abdul Kalam, it instantaneously makes one believe and treat creativity as the birthplace for several indispensable questions responsible for many scientific discoveries enriching human societies. The recent studies show that in most of the developing countries including India, concern for environment is widely expressed. The Environment comprises all entities, living and non-living, natural or manmade, external to oneself, and their interrelationships, which provide value, now or perhaps in the future, to humankind. Environmental concerns relate to their degradation through actions of humans. We the human species and all our activities are also an integral part of the dynamic environment. Our biological survival is totally dependent upon the stability of our surroundings which is nothing but a complex set of processes in dynamic equilibrium. Hence automatically all our developmental activities if they are to be beneficial and sustainable must be anchored on the environmental and ecological precepts. One of the greatest challenges of the present century is to tackle the problem of rapid urbanization. The rapid rate of urbanization and development has led to increasing environmental degradation. This increase has been rapid since the middle of the 19 th century which has affected the quality of environment. As per 2001 Census 27.8 per cent of India s population (286 million) lives in urban areas, thereby showing more than tenfold increase in total urban population from 1901 to 2001. According to the UN-HABITAT 2006 Annual Report, in regard to future trends, it is estimated 93 per cent of urban growth will occur in Asia and Africa and mainly two Asian Countries, India and China. By 2050 over 6 billion people, two thirds of humanity, will be living in towns and cities. 1 Urbanization is associated with higher incomes, improved health, higher literacy, improved quality of life and other benefits. Yet along with benefits comes environmental and social ills. Urbanization affects the environment in many ways: its relation with discharge of pollutants and generation of
solid/liquid/gaseous wastes, secondly, its relation with the depletion of natural resources and its relation with the social costs of population explosion, pollution, poverty and sustainable development. Waste generation has witnessed an increasing trend parallel to the development of industrialization, urbanization and rapid growth of population. The problem has become one of the primary urban environmental issues. Enormous amount of waste is generated daily and its management is a huge task. Similarly, the rapid increase in urbanization combines with desperate poverty to deplete and pollute local resource basis on which the livelihood of the present and future generation depends. Apart from these, India has major environmental problems related to industrialization also. In the pursuit for faster industrialization, the environmental factors have not been given serious consideration in the formulation of industrial policies. The cavalier attitude towards environmental degradation and adoption of environmentally less friendly technologies has resulted in air and water pollution and has made most of our major rivers impure and filthy. While the major industries are responsible for macro-environmental problems, the unchecked growth of informal manufacturing sector in most of urban centres has spoiled the micro-environments. Nature has enough to satisfy everyone s need but has not enough to satisfy man s greed. Sadly our over-expanding greed has put us in such precarious situation. Will we realise it? The policy of industrialization had helped rich to become richer and poor become poorer. The disparity has widened. It is the democratic system followed in the country which has forced our policy-makers to think of growth for all. That is why we are hearing plans for inclusive growth. Industrialization is not without price. All these have a direct bearing on environmental pollution leading to climatic change. We are all witness to the deleterious effects of climate change. The whole world is now anxious to repair the damage. Mahatma Gandhi Protection of the environment has to be a central part of any substantial inclusive growth strategy. This aspect of development is especially important in the Eleventh Plan when consciousness of the dangers of environmental degradation has increased greatly. Population growth, urbanization, and anthropogenic development employing energy-intensive technologies have resulted in injecting a heavy load of pollutants into the environment. More recently, the issue assumed special importance because of the accumulation of evidence of global warming and the associate climate 194
change that it is likely to bring. Thus, these consequences on quality of environment are not easily dealt with. The lack of knowledge is a problem. Therefore, environmental issues should not be viewed from a sectoral perspective or regarded as an add-on on consideration, because they form an integral part of all human activities. The national government s overriding concern for balance of payments to the exclusion of all their considerations has led to the neglect of environmental issues, greatly endangering the societal well-being. There is an urgent need to include to concept environmental burden in international trade and commerce. Similarly, sustainability criteria should become a touch stone for evaluating developmental projects along with techno-economic feasibility. A wide range of policy choices is available for protecting and improving environment. A judicious blend of short-term and long-term policies would be required to integrate environmental concern with developmental activities for attaining sustainable development. This chapter is divided into five sections: the second section include Generation of solid/liquid/gaseous wastes and their characteristics. The third section deals with various global environmental concerns; fourth section throw light on Waste Minimization Policy: The Need for An Integrated Waste Management Approach: the fifth and the final section deals with Social costs of population explosion, pollution, poverty and sustainable development and their various aspects. 6.2 Generation of Solid/Liquid/Gaseous Wastes A. Solid Waste Generation Solid wastes consist of the discards of households, dead animals, industrial and agricultural wastes and other large wastes like debris from construction site, automobiles, furniture etc. A typical classification of solid waste includes: 1. Garbage: putrescible (decomposable) wastes from food slaughter houses, canning freezing industries and market refuse. 2. Rubbish: Non-putrescible wastes like paper, wood, cloth, rubber, leather etc. Which are all combustible. It also includes non-combustible like metals, glass, ceramics, stone etc. 195
3. Ashes: Like fly ash from thermal plants, residues of incineration of solid wastes by municipal bodies or industries. 4. Hospital Refuse: Cotton, plaster, needles and operation theatre wastes. 5. Large Wastes: Debris from construction site, old furniture, automobiles. 6. Dead animals: Households, veterinary hospitals and zoo. 7. Sewage treatment process solids or sludge. 8. Industrial solid wastes: chemicals, paints, sand etc. 9. Agricultural Wastes: Farm animal manure, crop residue etc. 10. Mining Wastes: Tailings, slag heaps. 2 In Indian cities, the waste is generally not weighed. It is measured by volume to determine the quantity of waste disposed off. Some studies have shown that the waste generation rates are low in small towns whereas they are high in cities over 20 lakh population. The range is between 200 gms per capita per day and 500 gms per capita per day 3. Table 6.1, describes the average municipal solid waste production from 0.21 to 0.50 Kg per capita per day in India. The present urban population is expected 341 million in 2010. The waste quantities are expected to increase from 46 million tons in 2001 to 65 million tons in 2010 4. It is also reported that per capita per day production will increase to 0.7 kg in 2050. Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Cities Population Range Average Per Capita (Millions) Value Kg/Capita/Day 0.1-0.5 0.21 0.5-1.0 0.25 1.0-2.0 0.27 2.0-5.0 0.35 >5 0.5 Source: NEERI Strategy paper on SWM in India February 1996 Cities with 100,000 plus population contribute 72.5 per cent of the waste generated in the country as compared to other 3955 urban centres that produce only 17.5 per cent of the total waste (Table 6.2). 196
Table 6.2: Waste Generation in Class 1 Cities with Population above 100,000 Types of Cities Tonnes/day % of Total Garbage The 7 mega cities 21,100 18.35 the 28 metro cities 19,643 17.08 the 388 class 1 towns 42,635 37.07 Total 83,378 72.5 Note: Mega cities are above 4 million population and metro cities (also known as million plus cities) are the same as the identified cities under the proposed JNNURM. Class 1 cities with population in the 100,000 to 1 million range are 388 in number. Source: MOUD (2005) A (I) Characteristics of waste Table 6.3: represents the municipal solid waste characteristic during last three decades in the country. From the analysis of the table it could be concluded that the waste characteristics are expected to change due to urbanization, increased commercialization and standard of living. Table 6.3: Characteristics of Municipal solid Waste S.No COMPONENT WET WEIGHT IN INDIA % 1971-72* 1996** 2005*** 1 Paper 4.14 2.91-6.43 8.13 2 Plastics 0.69 0.28-0.78 9.22 3 Metals 0.5 0.32-0.80 0.5 4 Glass 0.4 0.35-0.94 1.01 5 Inert 3.83 44-54 25.16 6 Ash and Fine Earth 49.2 30-40 -- 7 Compostable Matter 41.24 31-57 40-60 8 Calorific Value 800-1100 <1500 800-1000 9 C/N Ratio 20-30 20-30 20-40 Note: *Bhide & Suderesan, 1983, **Manual on MSW, NEERI, 1996, ***http://www.cpcb.nic.in Source: CPHEEO Manual on MSW Management 197
The present trend indicates that the paper and plastics content will increase while the organic content will decrease. The ash and earth content is also expected to decrease mainly due to an increase in the paved surface. Although, the organic content is expected to decrease, the material will still be amenable to biodegradation and the calorific value will continue to be unsuitable for incineration. In keeping with the present practices and estimates of waste generation, around 90 per cent of the generated wastes are land filled requiring around 1200 hectare of land every year with an average depth of 3 m. Due to rapid urbanization, prevailing land use regulation and completing demands for available land, it is desirable that adequate land be earmarked at the planning stage itself for solid waste disposal. The larger quantities of solid waste and higher degree of urbanization will necessitate better management involving a higher level of expenditure on manpower and equipment. Plastic Waste It is noteworthy that the quantum of waste is ever increasing due to the increase in population, developmental activities, changes in life style, and socio-economic conditions. Plastics waste constitutes a significant portion of the total municipal solid waste (MSW). It is estimated that approximately ten thousand tonnes per day (TPD) of plastic waste is generated i.e. 9 per cent of 1.20 lakhs TPD of MSW in India. The plastic waste includes two major categories of plastics; (1) Thermoplastics and (2) Thermoset plastics. Thermoplastics constitute 80 per cent and Thermoset constitutes approximately 20 per cent of total postconsumer plastic waste generated in India. Thermoplastics are recyclable plastics and include Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), etc. Thermoset plastics contain alkyd, epoxy, ester, melamine formaldehyde, phenolic formaldehyde, silicon, urea formaldehyde, polyurethane, metalized and multilayer plastics etc. Hazardous Waste The hazardous waste generated in the country is about 4.4 million tonnes, out of which 38.3 per cent is recyclable, 4.3 per cent is incinerable and the remaining 57.4 per cent is disposable in secured landfills. Twelve states of the country (including Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan) 198
account for 87 of total waste generation. The top five waste generating states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and West Bengal. Electronic Waste (e-waste) The growth of e-waste has significant environmental, economic and social impact. The increase of electrical and electronic products, consumption rates and higher obsolescence rates lead to higher generation of e-waste. The increasing obsolescence rate of electronic products also adds to the huge import of used electronics products. The e-waste inventory based on the obsolescence rate in India for the year 2005 has been estimated to be 1, 46,180 tonnes, and is expected to exceed 8, 00,000 tonnes by 2012. There is no large scale organized e-waste recycling facility in India, whereas there are two small e-waste dismantling facilities functioning in Chennai and Bangalore, while most of the e-waste recycling units are operating in the un-organized sector. 5 B. Liquid Waste Generation With increasing urbanization, industrialization and their growing amount of wastes, huge quantities of waste water enters rivers and canals and have over-taxed their natural recycling capabilities. Of the many problems associated with increasing wastes, the problem of fresh water pollution in India came to the forefront towards the beginning of 1970 s with the domestic sewage and industrial waste discharges being the most critical sources of pollution in cities. This resulted in the promulgation of the water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and establishment of the National Water Quality Network in 1979. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has established National Water Quality Monitoring Network comprising 1429 monitoring stations in 27 states and 6 in Union Territories on various water bodies across the country. The monitoring is undertaken on monthly or quarterly basis in surface waters and on half yearly basis in case of ground water. The monitoring network covers 293 Rivers, 94 Lakes, 9 Tanks, 41 Ponds, 8 Creeks, 23 Canals, 18 Drains and 411 Wells. Presently the inland water quality-monitoring network is operated under a three-tier programme i.e. Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS), Monitoring of Indian National Aquatic Resources System and Yamuna Action Plan. 199
B (I) Water Pollution The sources of water pollution include point and non-point sources like discharges from industries and storm water respectively. While pollution from point sources can be controlled, it is difficult to control pollution from non-point sources such as agriculture run-off, leaching from waste disposal sites and storm water. 6 The infiltration of rainfall into landfill, together with the biochemical and chemical breakdown of the wastes, produces a leachate which is high in suspended solids and of varying organic and inorganic content. All household and most industrial wastes will produce leachate. If the leachate enters surface or groundwater before sufficient dilution has occurred, serious pollution incidents can occur. In surface waters, leachate high in organic material and reduced metals will cause severe oxygen depletion and result in fish-kills. Leachate high in non biodegradable synthetic organic compounds is a particular threat: through bioaccumulation, concentrations of these substances may increase to toxic levels and endanger animal and human life. If leachate enters groundwater or shallow aquifers, the problems are more intractable. Dilution and removal of leachate is much slower in groundwater than in surface water and it may render the groundwater non-potable for the foreseeable future. Contamination of groundwater is a serious problem of immediate concern. B (II) River Water Pollution 90 percent of wastewater discharged daily in developing countries is untreated, contributing to the deaths of some 2.2 million people a year from diarrheal diseases caused by unsafe drinking water and poor hygiene. At least 1.8 million children younger than 5 die every year from water-born diseases. Fully 80 per cent of urban waste in India ends up in the country s rivers, and unchecked urban growth across the country combined with poor government oversight means the problem is only getting worse. A growing numbers of water bodies in India are unfit for human use, and in the River Ganga, holy to countries 82 per cent Hindu majority, is dying slowly due to unchecked pollution. Much of the river pollution problem in India comes from untreated sewage. The water quality data of rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Sabarmati, Mahi, Tapi, Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarni, Subarnrekha, 200
Brahmaputra, Satluj and Beas is computed statistically to obtain information on polluted stretches. The water quality of major rivers varied widely with respect to DO, BOD, total Coliform and faecal Coliform. The level of DO is observed more than 4 mg/l in river Narmada, Mahanadi, Brahmini, Baitarni, Subarnrekha, Beas and Chambal throughout the year whereas, the lowest values (in mg/l) were observed in stretches as river Kali East (0.1), Ganga (0.3), Yamuna (0.3), Krishna (0.4), Amlakhedi (0.4), Sabarmati (0.7), Ghaggar (0.8), Brahmaputra (1.1), Tapi (1.2), Satluj (1.6), Godavari (2.4), Mahi (2.7), Kaveri (3.3), Pennar (2.3) and at few locations downstream of urban settlements due to discharge of untreated/partially treated municipal wastewater, which is responsible for high oxygen demand. Very high values of BOD were observed in rivers Amlakhedi (947 mg/l), Sabarmati (380 mg/l), Kali East (165 mg/l) followed by Satluj (64 mg/l), Yamuna (40mg/l), Tapi (36 mg/l), Ghaggar (28 mg/l), Chambal (24 mg/l), Godavari (15mg/l), Ganga (14.4 mg/l), Cauvery (9 mg/l), Krishna (9 mg/l) and Brahmani (7 mg/l). The relatively low values of BOD were measured in river(s) Mahi, Narmada, Brahmaputra, Pennar, Mahanadi, Baitarni and Beas. In respect of total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) and faecal Coliform numbers (MPN/100 ml), river Yamuna is leading with highest count of 1.1x109 and 6.2x107 respectively followed by, Sabarmati (4.6x105 and 2.4x105), Ganga (4.5x106 and 7x105), Brahmaputra (2.4x105 and 2.4x105), Cauvery (5x104 and 1.7x104), Brahmani (2.8x104 and 1.3 x 104), Satluj (2x105 and 9x104), Krishana (1.24 x 105 and 2.8 x 103), Mahanadi (9.2x104 and 2.4 x 104), Baitarni (9.2x104 and 3.5 x 103), Ghaggar (1.7 x 105 and 9x104), Tapi (5x105), and Godavari (2.2 x 105 and 5.5 x 104) at certain locations. The river Mahi, Subenarrekha, Pennar and Narmada are relatively clean rivers as the number of total Coliform and faecal Coliform count are relatively less than 2400 MPN/100 ml and 700 MPN/100 ml respectively. 7 Some of the polluted river stretches; their Observations in terms of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) are summarised in Table 6.4. It has been observed that almost all rivers are polluted with respect to Bio- Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), one of the most important indicators of water quality. 201
Table 6.4: List of Polluted River Stretches in terms of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Concentrations at various points located at Interstate Boundaries S.No. River Location Duration of Observations year BOD (mg/l) DO (mg/l) 1. Yamuna Paonata Sahib (H.P.) 2005-08 1 3.64 1.26 6.6 10.6 8.7 Sonipat 2005-08 1 5 2.55 6.1 8.2 7.13 Baghpat Road, Haryana Palla, (Delhi) 2005-08 1 6 2.84 5.5 10.7 7.9 Asgarpur Village (U.P.) 2005-08 6 50 30 0 0 0 Dak Patthar (Uttarakhand) 2005-08 1 2 1.16 9.01 10.2 8.9 Buriya U/S 2005-08 1 2 1.28 7 10.5 8.27 Jagadhari (Haryana) Mohena Palwal 2005-08 8 37 21 0 12.1 3.2 Road (Haryana) Shergarh 2005-07 2 10 4.84 6.6 18.6 10.3 (U.P.) 2. Ganga Tarighat, 2005-08 1 6 3.2 6.9 8.72 7.95 Ghazipur (U.P.) Sultanpur 2005-08 1 2 1.42 6.8 12 8.90 (Uttrakhand) Bijnor 2005-08 1 4 1.85 7 9 8 Deoband Road (U.P.) 3. Sutlej Nangal (H.P.) 2006-08 1 2 1.33 6 8.7 1.66 4. Krishna Khurundward Kohlapur (Maharashtra) 2005-08 <1 5 1.7 5.4 11.5 8.4 Deodurg (Karnataka) 5. Damodar Sindri (Jharkhand) Dishergharh (West Bengal) 2005-08 <1 2 0.61 7 7.8 7.8 2005-09 1 3 2.16 6.9 8.2 7.48 2005-09 1 3 2.17 6.5 8.2 7.38 202
6. Cauvery Satyagala Bridge, Narsipur (Karnataka) 7. Godavari Basra Kavalguda, (Maharashtra) 8. Sabarmati Khedbrahma (Gujarat) 9. Tapi Prakasha (Maharashtra) Nizhar (Gujarat) Ajnand (Maharashtra) 10. Subarnarekha Bheragora (Jharkhand) Gopibhallavpur (West Bengal) Lakhannath (Orissa) 11. Narmada Navagam (Gujarat) 12. Kosi Dadyal Bridge (U.P.) 13. Sone Chopan, (D/S before Reservoir Rihand), (U.P.) Deora (U/S before Reservoir Rihand), (M.P.) 2005-08 <1 2 0.92 6.9 8.6 7.56 2005-08 1 3 2.03 4 568 192.9 2005-07 1 1 1.1 6.7 10.5 8.6 2006-08 <1 8 4.03 7.0 8.8 7.63 2006-08 1 1.5 1.25 7.1 8.1 7.6 2006-08 <1 3 2.03 7.1 14.5 9.93 2005-09 1 3 2 6.8 8.5 7.58 2005-09 2 3 2.25 6.4 8.5 7.57 2005-09 2 2 2 6.8 8.2 7.5 2006-08 <1 2 1.4 4.8 9 7.06 2008 2 2 2 7.4 7.4 7.4 2005-08 1 3 1.77 5.5 5.58 5.4 2005-08 <1 3 1.18 5.74 8.3 7.02 Source: CPCB Annual Report, 2008-09 203
Table 6.5: Trend of Water Supply, Waste Water Generation and Treatment in Class I Cities/Class II Towns (1978-79 to 2003-04) Parameters 1978-79 Class I Cities 1989-90 1994-95 2003-04 Class II Towns 1978-79 1989-90 1994-95 2003-04 Number 142 212 299 423 190 241 345 498 Population (millions) Water supply (mld) 60 102 128 187 12.8 20.7 23.6 37.5 8,638 15,191 20,607 29782 1533 1622 1936 3035 Water supply (lpcd) Waste Water Generated (mld) Waste water Generation (lpcd) 144 149 161 160 120 78 82 81 7,007 12,145 16,662 23826 1226 1280 1650 2428 117 119 130 127 96 62 70 65 Waste water treated (mld) 2,756 (39%) 2,485 (20.5%) 4,037 (24%) 6955 (29%) 67 (5.44%) 27 (2.12%) 62 (3.73%) 89 (3.67%) Waste water Untreated (mld) 4,251 (61%) 9,660 (79.5%) 12,625 (76%) 16871 (71%) 1160 (94.56%) 1252 (97.88%) Source: 11 th Five Year Plan (2007-12), Vol 2, Planning Commission, GOI Note: mld-mega litre per day lpcd-litres per Capita per Day 1588 (96.27%) 2339 (96.33%) The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) realised the gravity of water quality deterioration in water bodies and instituted studies on the wastewater management in India with changing urban pattern during last three decades and highlighted the need for urban wastewater management. The studies on watersheds for assessment of water quality and wastewater management formed the basis for River Action Plans on many of rivers and their tributaries. The trend of water supply 204
and wastewater generation and treatment in Class I Cities and Class II towns is summarised in Table 6.5. The comparison of water supply, wastewater generation and treatment in Class I Cities and Class II Towns during 1978-79, 1989-90, 1994-95 and 2003-04 is given. Data collected in these studies indicates that the wastewater generation has increased three fold i.e. from 8233 million litres per day (mld) in 1978-79 to 26254 mld in 2003-04 putting together the figures of both categories of urban centres. Although, the treatment capacity has also increased by two and half times from 2823 mld in 1978-79 to 7044 mld in 2003-04 but the gap of untreated volume has increased drastically. Table 6.6 represent the data on wastewater generation and treatment in Class I cities and Class II towns in India during 2003-04. The data is compiled for each State and Union Territory and the ranking of States (worked out on the basis of discharge of untreated wastewater). Table 6.7 shows projected population and wastewater generation in India. It is clear from the table that based on the projected population for the year 2051 the wastewater generation is going to be 132253 mld and the urban population projection for the year 2051 is likely to be of the magnitude of 1093 million when about 50 per cent population will live in cities however this shows that waste water generation shows an increasing trend and is positively related to rise in urban population. As the water availability is going to reduce due to increase in population the wastewater generation in any urban centre is going to be the source of water supply for the downstream located urban centres. In view of such situation there is a need to attain 100 per cent wastewater treatment with more stringent standard. 205
Table 6.6: Ranking of States based on discharge of untreated wastewater in Class I cities and Class II towns - 2003-04 Rank States Waste water Generated (mld) Waste water Treatment (mld) Discharge of untreated waste water 1 Maharashtra 5247 653 4594 2 West Bengal 2363 385 1978 3 Delhi 3663 2230 1433 4 Bihar (incl. Jharkhand) 5 Uttar Pradesh (incl. Uttaranchal) 1524 135 1389 2563 1215 1348 6 Andhra Pradesh 1421 208 1213 7 Rajasthan 1180 27 1153 8 Gujarat 1911 807 1104 9 Madhya Pradesh (incl. Chhattisgarh) 1296 241 1055 10 Tamil Nadu 1223 338 885 11 Karnataka 1158 397 761 12 Punjab 689 5 684 13 Kerala 479 0 479 14 Orissa 418 0 418 15 Assam 248 0 248 16 Chandigarh 304 91 213 17 Haryana 369 309 60 18 Pondicherry 40 0 40 19 Meghalaya 34 0 34 20 Manipur 27 0 27 21 Tripura 25 0 25 22 Goa 22 0 22 23 Nagaland 22 0 22 24 Himachal Pradesh 15 3 12 25 Andaman 9 0 9 26 Mizoram 4 0 4 Total 26254 7044 19210 Source: 11 th Five Year Plan (2007-12), Planning Commission, GOI 206
Table 6.7: Projected Population and Respectively Wastewater Generation in India Year Urban Population (Million) Litres/Capita/Day (lpcd) Gross Wastewater Generation (mld) 1977-78 60 116 7007 1989-90 102 119 12145 1994-95 128 130 16662 2001 285 - - 2011 373 - - 2021 488 121 (Assumed) 59048 (Projected) 2031 638 121 (Assumed) 77198 (Projected) 2041 835 121 (Assumed) 101035 (Projected) 2051 1093 121 (Assumed) 132253 (Projected) Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. C. Gaseous Waste Generation The decomposition of waste into chemicals constituent is a common source of local environmental pollution which contaminates air and water systems. A major environmental concern is gas release by decomposing garbage. Methane is a byproduct of the anaerobic respiration of bacteria, and these bacteria thrive in landfills with high amounts of moisture. Methane concentrations can reach up to 50 per cent of the composition of landfill gas at maximum anaerobic decomposition. In the absence of proper methane venting and/or flaring, the gas seeps into porous soil surrounding the waste and eventually migrates into basements and homes, posing an explosion risk. Carbon dioxide is a second predominant gas emitted by landfills; although less reactive, build up in nearby homes could be a cause of asphyxiation. A second problem with these gasses is their contribution to the so-called greenhouse gasses (GHGs) which are blamed for global warming. Both gases are major constituents of the world s problem GHGs; however while carbon dioxide is readily absorbed for use in photosynthesis; methane is less easily broken down, and is considered 20 times more potent as a GHG. 8 207
C (I) Air Pollution Air pollution in India has been aggravated over the years by developments that typically occur as economies become industrialised: growing cities, increasing traffic, and higher levels of energy consumption. Although, industrial emissions are significant but vehicular pollution is the single most important source of air pollution (around 70 per cent). Since 1960 s the number of motor vehicles is increasing at rate faster than the population. It is estimated that there were 50 million cars all over the world in 1950, which have risen to 600 million in 2002. By 2020 it will be touching 1 billion mark. Vehicle production in India is increasing at the rate of 15-20 per cent per year. As per a recent media report (T.O.I.), Delhi is adding 963 vehicles on its road every day while Bangalore is adding 500 vehicles. The story is no different in other metros or tier-ii and tier-iii cities 9. Table 6.8 shows the rapid growth of automobiles in India, in various sectors during 1951 to 2006. The table reveals that personalised mode (constituting mainly two wheelers and cars) accounted for more than four-fifth of the motor vehicles in the country compared to their share of little over three-fifth in 1950. Further break up of motor vehicle population reflects preponderance of two wheelers with a share of more than 72 per cent in total vehicle population, followed by passenger cars at 13 per cent and other vehicles (a heterogeneous category which includes 3 wheelers (LMV Passengers), trailers, tractors, etc.) around 9 per cent. In contrast to personalized mode, the share of buses in total registered vehicles has declined from 11.1 per cent in 1951 to 1.1 per cent during 2006. Also, the share of goods vehicle at about 5 per cent in vehicle population is modest in comparison to the size of the economy. The share of buses in the vehicle population at about 1 per cent possibly indicates the slow growth in public transport. The major share is contributed by metropolitan cities in all registered vehicles in the country. The problem has been further compounded by steady increase in urban population (from approximately 17 percent to 28 percent during 1951-2001) and larger concentration of vehicles in these urban cities specially in four major metros namely, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata which account for more than 15 percent of the total vehicular population of the whole country, whereas, more than 40 other metropolitan cities (with human population more than 1million) accounted for 35 percent of the vehicular population of the country. Further, 25 208
percent of the total energy (of which 98 percent comes from oil) is consumed by road sector only. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to account for 70 percent of CO, 50 percent of HC, 30-40 percent of NOx, 30 percent of SPM and 10 percent of SO 2 of the total pollution load of these cities, of which two third is contributed by two wheelers alone. These high level of pollutants are mainly responsible for respiratory and other air pollution related ailments including lung cancer, asthma etc., which is significantly higher than the national average. 10 Table 6.8: Composition of Vehicle Population in Percentage of total Year 2 Wheelers Cars, Jeeps etc. Buses Goods Vehicle Others Total (Million) 1951 8.8 52 11.1 26.8 1.3 0.31 1961 13.2 46.6 8.6 25.3 6.3 0.66 1971 30.9 36.6 5 18.4 9.1 1.86 1981 48.6 21.5 3 10.3 16.6 5.39 1991 66.4 13.8 1.5 6.3 11.9 21.37 2001 70.1 12.8 1.2 5.4 10.5 54.99 2004 71.4 13 1.1 5.2 9.4 72.72 2005 72.1 12.7 1.1 4.9 9.1 81.5 2006 (P) 72.2 12.9 1.1 4.9 8.8 89.61 Note: Others include Tractors, Trailers, 3 Wheelers & etc. (P): Provisional Source: Road Transport Year Book 2006-07, MoRTH Fig: 6.1 Source: As table 6.8 209
These cause the problem of air pollution, as a result of exhaust gases and particulate matter. As per a recent study by IIT, Chennai, 70 per cent air pollutants are from automobile emission in the mega city of Chennai. Some of these exhaust gases like CO 2 is a major greenhouse gas while Carbon Monoxide, NOx and hydrocarbons are major health hazards for the people on road as vehicle emit within the breathing zone of people. The increase of automobiles is major concern for air quality in the Indian cities. Release of dust, smoke and chemically hazardous gases lead to poor air quality near the industrial sites. Dust from mines specially coal and asbestoses when inhaled by the workers produce chest related diseases. Dust from brick clines, fly ash from coal fired thermal power plants cover large areas in the neighbouring towns and cities. Thus, this is clearly an area of concern in global environmental issues. In order to determine the air quality status and trends assess health hazards, disseminate air quality data, and to control and regulate pollution, the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) initiated a nationwide framework of NAAQM (National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring) in 1984 with 28 stations at 7 cities. Presently, the network has 290 monitoring stations in 92 cities and towns throughout the country. The pollutants being monitored are mainly SPM (suspended particulate matter), SO 2 (sulphur dioxide) and NOx (oxides of nitrogen). SPM is one of the most critical pollutants in terms of its on air quality and is also the most common pollutant across all sectors. As against to the maximum permissible limits laid down by CPCB for annual average concentration of SPM in ambient air - 70 mg/m 3 in sensitive areas, 140 mg/m 3 in residential areas and 360 mg/m 3 in industrial areas, it is clearly evident that the SPM levels are high in most of the cities in India. Table 6.9 reveals air pollution scenario in different cities and lead us to the conclusion that almost all cities shows a high level of air pollution and as a result public policies to address these problems are in place, but no city has been able to satisfactorily contain them. 210
Table 6.9: Air Pollution Scenario in different Cities City Population thousands (2005) (Concentrations in Microgramme Per Cubic Metre) Particulate Matter (2002) SPM (2001) RSPM (2001) SO 2 (1995-2001) NO 2 (1995-2005) Ahmedabad 5171 98 220 198 30 21 Bangalore 6532 53 106 87 - - Kolkata 14299 145 239 102 49 34 Chennai 6915 44 82 66 15 17 Delhi 15334 177 311 180 24 41 Hyderabad 6145 48 115 77 12 17 Kanpur 3040 128 570 202 15 14 Lucknow 2589 129 341 173 26 25 Mumbai 18336 74 243 81 33 39 Nagpur 2359 65 277 83 6 13 Pune 4485 55 245 115 - - Source: World Bank World Development Indicators (WDI), 2006. 6.3: Global Environmental Concerns One of the most important characteristics of this environmental degradation is that it affects all mankind on a global scale without regard to any particular country, region, or race. Some of the environmental issues of global significance are listed below:- A. Greenhouse effects The green house effect is increasing because of human activities. Unfortunately, every major source of energy, except nuclear power emits carbon dioxide. Land and water are heated by the solar energy. After being heated, land and water radiates back to the atmosphere. This outgoing heat may be blocked by carbon dioxide and water vapour present in the air. This trapped energy causes heating of the earth, which is known as greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide and many trace gases released as by-products of human activities are currently accumulating in the atmosphere. The most important green house gases (GHG) in terms of past and current contribution to air pollution are shown in the Table 6.10 and Fig.2. Table 6.11 211
and Fig.3 shows sectoral contribution of GHG emission. From table 6.10 it is clear that Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a prime gas responsible for greenhouse effect contributing nearly 49 per cent and table 6.11 shows that highest sector which contributes to GHG emission is energy 61 per cent. Table 6.10: Contribution of GHG to Atmosphere Green house Gases Contribution of GHG (%) Carbon dioxide 49 Methane 18 Chloro flouro Carbons 14 Nitrous Oxide 06 Others 13 Total 100 Source: University News 48(25) June 21-27, 2010 p.p.19 Table 6.11: Sectoral Contribution of GHG Emission Sector Contribution of GHG (%) Energy 61 Agricultural Sector 28 Industrial 08 Urban Wastage 02 Others 01 total 100 Source: University News 48(25) June 21-27, 2010 p.p.50 Fig: 6.2: Source: as Table 6.10 212
Fig: 6.3 Source: as Table 6.11 B. Global Warming It is one of the serious environmental problems of today. The increased level of carbon dioxide due to green house effect has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This is called global warming. Precise predictions about global warming are difficult but the best model studies indicate that in the coming years the temperature of earth may rise to such a level that it would be enough to melt the polar icecaps, which can increase the sea level and also increase the chances of floods. Table 6.12 reveals Co 2 emission in the world. So far as the Co 2 emissions in India are concerned, India stands at fifth position in terms of total Co 2 emission. But in terms of per capita emissions of Co 2 India s rank is 113 th. The per 1000 people Co 2 emission in US is 19.48 thousand metric tons, which is highest in the world. In comparison to this, the per 1000 people Co 2 emissions in India is only 0.93 thousand metric tons. However, according to the energy information administration, after China and the US, among major polluters India is expected to have significant growth of emissions over the next 20 years. Emerging economies such as China and India will have the largest growth in Co 2 emissions over the next 20 years. 213
Table 6.12: CO 2 Emission in the World (2003) (Thousands Metric Tons of Carbon) Rank Countries Total Co 2 Emissions Per capita Co 2 emissions (per 1000 peoples) 1 US 5,761,050 19.48 2 China 3,473,600 2.65 3 Russia 1,540,360 10.74 4 Japan 1,224,740 9.61 5 India 1,007,980 0.93 6 Germany 8,37,425 10.15 7 U.K. 5,58,225 9.23 8 Canada 5,21,404 15.89 9 Italy 4,46,596 7.69 10 Mexico 3,85,075 3.62 World Total Source: World Resource Institute 22,829,463.2 4.2 C. Ozone Depletion Ozone, a deep blue gas, made up of chemically bounded oxygen atoms, is a minor constituent of the earth s atmosphere. It protects the land by absorbing 99 per cent of quantity of emission of ultra-violet sun rays. It has been discovered that the protective ozone layer is getting progressively eroded due to the impact of increasing human activities. The major cause of the depletion of the ozone layer is the world-wide emission of man-made compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in the refrigeration, aerosol spray and in many other items of daily use. CFCs are, by and large, chemically inert, having no direct effect on humans or other living organisms. CFCs escaped into the atmosphere ultimately find their way into stratosphere where they break down ozone molecules involving complex chemical reactions. D. Loss of Biodiversity Biodiversity is a combination of two words biological and diversity and it refers to the variety of life on earth, and its biological diversity. These include millions of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the 214
intricate ecosystems of which they are a part. Biodiversity is essential for sustainable development, but finding sustainable ways of living is essential for the conservation of biodiversity. Large scale development projects such as industrial plants or hydroelectric projects have contributed substantially to the loss of biodiversity rich areas. At least 10 per cent of its recorded flora, and possibly a large fraction of its wild fauna, is threatened. Many may be on the verge of extinction. In last few decades, India has lost at least 50 per cent of its forests, polluted over 70 percent of its water bodies, built cultivated or otherwise encroached upon its grasslands, and degraded many coastal areas. More than 150 of the known species of medicinal plants in India have already become extinct due to unsustainable methods of harvesting. India s domesticated biodiversity is also under threat. Hundreds of crop varieties have disappeared and even their genes have not been preserved. 6.4: Waste Minimisation Policy: The Need for An Integrated Waste Management Approach In order to handle growing volumes of waste, the proper policies need to be enacted and implemented. Integrated solid waste management is defined as the selection and application of appropriate techniques, technologies and management programmes to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals. This approach consists of a hierarchical and coordinated set of actions that reduces pollution, seeks to maximize recovery of reusable and recyclable materials, and protects human health and the environment. Integrated waste management aims to be socially desirable, economically viable, and environmentally sound. Integrated waste management comprises of the following parameters; (A) Waste Prevention/Reduction Waste prevention/reduction is given the highest priority in integrated waste management. This is a preventive action that seeks to reduce the amount of waste that individuals, businesses, and other organizations generate. It is now well recognised that sustainable development can only be achieved if society in general, and industry in particular, produces more with less i.e. more goods and services with less use of the world s resources (raw materials and energy) and less pollution and waste. 215
Society, as a whole, would benefit from a successful implementation of a waste prevention programme. (B) Re-use Once the waste prevention programme has been implemented, the next priority in an integrated waste management approach is promoting the re-use of products and materials. Re-use consists of the recovery of items to be used again, perhaps after some cleaning and refurbishing. Re-using materials and products saves energy and water, reduces pollution, and lessens society s consumption of natural resources compared with the use of single-application products and materials. (C) Recycling After the re-use of materials and products, recycling comes next in the integrated waste management hierarchy. Recycling is the recovery of materials for melting them, repulping them, and reincorporating them as raw materials. It is technically feasible to recycle a large amount of materials, such as plastics, wood, metals, glass, textiles, paper, cardboard, rubber, ceramics, and leather. Besides technical feasibility and knowhow, demand determines the types and amounts of materials that are recycled in a particular region. Areas with a diversified economy and industrial base usually demand more different types of raw materials that can be recycled. Recycling can render social, economic, and environmental benefits. Factories that consume recyclable materials can be built for a fraction of the cost of building plants that consume virgin materials. Recycling saves energy and water, and generates less pollution than obtaining virgin raw materials, which translates into lower operating costs. Recycling also reduces the amount of waste that needs to be collected, transported, and disposed of, and extends the life of disposal facilities, which saves money for the municipalities. Recycling can result in a more competitive economy and a cleaner environment, and can contribute to a more sustainable development. In the developing world, municipalities usually lack recycling programmes. That does not mean, however, that recycling does not exist. Informal recycling is common throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Scavengers carry out the bulk 216
of recycling of municipal waste. Scavengers salvage recyclable materials on the streets, before collection crews arrive, at communal refuse dumpsters and illegal open dumps, as well as at municipal open dumps and landfills. Scavenging provides an income to unemployed individuals, recent migrants who have been unable to find employment in the formal sector, women, children, and elderly individuals. Many scavengers can be considered as a vulnerable section of the population. Due to their daily contact with garbage and their often ragged appearance, scavengers are typically associated with dirt and squalor, and are considered as undesirables and sometimes even as criminals. Despite the stereotypical view of scavengers as being marginal and the poorest of the poor, a growing amount of evidence demonstrates that that is often not the case. Scavenging supplies raw materials to industry and, therefore, has strong linkages with the formal sector. In some cases, these linkages have existed for centuries, such as in the paper industry. Paper was invented by the Chinese and, up until the nineteenth century, it was made mainly of cotton and linen rags. Scavengers or rag pickers recovered rags from residents and sold them to paper mills, which then recycled them. In the nineteenth century, the paper industry switched from rags to wood pulp as its main raw material. In developing countries today, scavengers still play an important role in supplying wastepaper to the paper mills. Thus, the rag-pickers of the past and the wastepaper collectors of today have never been a marginal occupation. Scavenging can also save foreign currency by reducing imports of raw materials. Alternatively, if industrial demand is stronger in a neighbouring country, scavenging can become a source of foreign currency by exporting the materials recovered by scavengers. The structural causes of scavenging are under-development, poverty, unemployment, and the lack of a safety net for the poor, as well as industrial demand for inexpensive raw materials. These factors are likely to continue to exist in many developing countries. Therefore, a public policy that supports scavenging activities would be humane, as well as make social, economic, and environmental sense. 11 217
(D) Composting Composting is a technology known in India since times immemorial. Composting is the decomposition of organic matter by microorganism in warm, moist, aerobic and anaerobic environment. Farmers have been using compost made out of cow dung and other agro-waste. The compost made out of urban heterogeneous waste is found to be of higher nutrient value as compared to the compost made out of cow dung and agro-waste. Composting of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is, therefore, the most simple and cost effective technology for treating the organic fraction of MSW. Full-scale commercially viable composting technology is already demonstrated in India and is in use in several cities and towns. Its application to farm land, tea gardens, fruit orchards or its use as soil conditioner in parks, gardens, agricultural lands, etc., is however, limited on account of poor marketing. Main advantages of composting include improvement in soil texture and augmenting of micronutrient deficiencies. It also increases moisture-holding capacity of the soil and helps in maintaining soil health. Moreover, it is an age-old established concept for recycling nutrients to the soil. It does not require large capital investment, compared to other waste treatment options. When composting is conducted under controlled conditions, it does not generate odours and does not attract flies or other animals. Composting recycles nutrients by returning them to the soil. (E) Incineration This method, commonly used in developed countries is most suitable for high calorific value waste with a large component of paper, plastic, packaging material, pathological wastes, etc. It can reduce waste volumes by over 90 per cent and convert waste to innocuous material, with energy recovery. The method is relatively hygienic, noiseless, and odourless, and land requirements are minimal. The plant can be located within city limits, reducing the cost of waste transportation. This method, however, is least suitable for disposal of chlorinated waste and aqueous/high moisture content/low calorific value waste as supplementary fuel may be needed to sustain combustion, adversely affecting net energy recovery. The plant requires large capital and entails substantial operation and maintenance costs. Skilled personnel are required for plant operation and 218
maintenance. Emission of particulates, SO x, NO x, chlorinated compounds in air and toxic metals in particulates concentrated in the ash have raised concerns. (F) Sanitary landfilling Sanitary landfills are the ultimate means of disposal of all types of residual, residential, commercial and institutional waste as well as unutilized municipal solid waste from waste processing facilities and other types of inorganic waste and inert that cannot be reused or recycled in the foreseeable future. Its main advantage is that it is the least cost option for waste disposal and has the potential for the recovery of landfill gas as a source of energy, with net environmental gains if organic wastes are landfilled. The gas after necessary cleaning can be utilized for power generation or as domestic fuel for direct thermal applications. Sanitary landfills can also include other pollution control measures, such as collection and treatment of leachate, and venting or flaring of methane. Highly skilled personnel are not required to operate a sanitary landfill. Major limitation of this method is the costly transportation of waste to far away landfill sites. Down gradient surface water can be polluted by surface run-off in the absence of proper drainage systems and groundwater aquifers may get contaminated by polluted leachate in the absence of a proper leachate collection and treatment system. An inefficient gas recovery process emits two major green house gases, carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere. It requires large land area. At times the cost of pre-treatment to upgrade the gas quality and leachate treatment may be significant. There is a risk of spontaneous ignition/explosion due to possible build up of methane concentrations in air within the landfill or surrounding enclosures if proper gas ventilation is not constructed. 6.5: Social Costs of Population explosion, viz. Pollution, Poverty and Sustainable Development Human beings have, throughout their history, changed their surroundings often in ways they neither intended nor desired. Such environmental problems as depletion of natural resources, air pollution, and exhaustion, pollution of water supplies, and poverty have arisen at many times and places. Yet for most of history these problems have had mainly local impacts. What is new today is the vastly greater 219