Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Educational Institutions in India Higher level Education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at Universities, colleges etc. Higher education is that level of education that is pursued after the completion of school which provides a secondary education. Tertiary education is the level of education that is pursued after secondary education and normally includes undergraduate and postgraduate education [1]. India is a habitat for education. There are over 300 Universities and 45,000 Colleges of various types in the country. Most of these educational institutions need recognition by a competent body / regulatory authority that are supported by the Government of India, State Governments or by Societies [2]. The Universities include State Universities, Central Universities and Deemed to be University institutions and these are recognized by the University Grants Commission (UGC). The Central Government is in charge of major guidelines relating to higher education in India. It gives grants to the UGC and sets up central universities in the country. The Central Government is also responsible 1
for assertion of Education Institutions as Deemed to be University on the advice of the UGC. The State Governments are responsible for establishment of State Universities and colleges, and provide grants for their development and maintenance [3]. The University Grants Commission (UGC) is liable for coordination, determination and maintenance of standards and release of grants. Professional councils are accountable for recognition of courses, promotion of professional institutions and providing grants to undergraduate programmes and various awards [3]. The statutory professional councils are: All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) Medical Council of India (MCI) Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) Dental Council of India (DCI) Pharmacy Council of India (PCI) Indian Nursing Council (INC) Bar Council of India (BCI) Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH) Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM) Council of Architecture Distance Education Council 2
Rehabilitation Council State Councils of Higher Education There are around 3573 engineering colleges [4] out of which 592 are Universities [4] and 7012 arts and science colleges in India [5]. In Tamil Nadu there are two central universities, 24 state universities, 29 deemed universities, an IIM, an IIT, an NIT and one other autonomous institute [4]. There are 525 engineering colleges [4], 757 arts and science colleges [5] and 302 management institutes [6] in Tamil Nadu. The term Faculty refers to the teaching staff or the academic staff of any university or college. Institutions employ faculty members to attain the mission and goals of the organization. A faculty who is well qualified and highly motivated is critical to the success of the institution. But, even in top universities in developing countries, faculty have less of graduate level training which limits the degree of knowledge imparted to the students (Higher education in developing countries, 2000). To appoint a faculty, institutions generally consider the following criteria [7]: Competence Effectiveness Capacity 3
Qualification Work experience in the field of teaching Certifications, honors and awards Individual effectiveness and institutional performance are contributed by the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values of the staff members. There are a set of guidelines and norms for the process of recruitment of staff and the structure of the staff. The ratio of Professors to Associate Professors to Assistant Professors in a UG college would be in the ratio 1:2:6. The ratio of Professors to Associate Professors in a PG college would be 1:2. These are usually ideal for the institutions that may not identify the programmes to ensure suitable senior faculty in the UG level also. The required student to teacher ratio for engineering courses would be 10:1. However, the maximum can be raised to 15:1[8]. 1.2 Intelligence Wechsler [10] defines Intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment. Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. This ability includes adaptability to a new environment, capacity to acquire knowledge, capacity for reasoning and abstract thought, power to comprehend relationships, capability to evaluate and judge and scope for original and productive thought. 4
Intelligence can generally be explained as the capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment. It also involves reasoning, problem-solving ability, knowledge, memory and successful adaptation to one s surroundings. The five aspects of intelligence are fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory [9]. 1.3 Emotional Intelligence In 1985, a graduate student in the USA included the word Emotional Intelligence in the title of the thesis for the first time. For the next five years, the term seemed to be dormant. In 1990, two American University Professors, John Mayer and Peter Salovey published two academic articles in the journal and one of them was titled Emotional Intelligence. In 1992, a New York writer, Daniel Goleman was doing a research on emotions and emotional literacy when he came across the article by John Mayer and Peter Salovey. In 1995, Goleman s book named Emotional Intelligence came out. Goleman widened the definition of Emotional Intelligence [11] and with this widened definition; he published a book named Working with Emotional Intelligence in 1998. Goleman brought about 25 skills, abilities and competencies under Emotional Intelligence in this book [12]. 5
Mayer, Salovey and David Caruso proposed that Emotional Intelligence is a true form of intelligence which was not measured scientifically till they started their research. The first definition of Emotional Intelligence which they put forward is the ability to process emotional information, particularly as it involves the perception, assimilation, understanding and management of emotion [13]. They explained Emotional Intelligence as four branches of mental ability namely identification, perception and expression of emotion, facilitating emotional thought, understanding emotions and managing emotions. In February 2004 review, they defined Emotional Intelligence as the ability to accurately identify emotions, using emotions, aiding people to think, understanding the motive for emotions and managing emotions to conquer the wisdom of the feelings. In 1997, they published an article, which consisted of a detailed chart comprising of all the four branches of Emotional Intelligence [12]. Emotional Intelligence is the ability to manage our relationships and us effectively. It can also be described as the skill to understand and manage the emotions of oneself, of others and of groups. Mayer and Salovey [14] defined Emotional Intelligence as, "the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions". 6
1.3.1 Branches of Emotional Intelligence John D. Mayer, Peter Salovey and David R. Caruso[15] proposed four branches of Emotional Intelligence as given below: 1.3.1.1. Perceiving Emotions This branch of Emotional Intelligence explains the ability to recognize how the person concerned person and the people around are feeling. This indicates the ability to identify the emotions. 1.3.1.2. Facilitating Thought This branch of Emotional Intelligence describes the ability to generate emotions and use them to enhance reasoning and other cognitive tasks. This indicates the use of emotions to help and foster ideas. 1.3.1.3. Understanding Emotions This is the third branch of Emotional Intelligence, which describes the ability to understand simple and complex emotions. This indicates one s knowledge about the emotions. 1.3.1.4. Managing Emotions This describes the ability to manage emotions in one and in others. This indicates the capacity for emotional regulation. 7
1.3.2. Measuring Emotional Intelligence Various tools to measure Emotional Intelligence are: MSCEIT, [15] Bar-On s EQ-i Schutte s EI scale [16] Wong & Law (2002) s EI scale 1.4. Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction explains how fulfilled a person is with his job. Job Satisfaction can be explained as the positive state of emotions that results from evaluation of his job and his job experiences. Job Satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one s job [17], an affective reaction to one s job [18] and an attitude towards one s job [19]. Oshagbemi [20] defines Job Satisfaction as an emotional response that occurs as a result of the interaction between the worker s values concerning his/her job and the profits he/she gained from his/her job. Job Satisfaction `consists of the attributes of the job, remuneration a person gets by working on the job, opening for career development, organizational climate, attitude of the supervisor, co-workers etc. [21]. The feelings of the employees, which reveal the outlook towards the job, is defined as Job satisfaction [22]. The consequences of low Job Satisfaction may result in costly turnover, 8
absenteeism, sluggishness and even poor mental health [22]. Some of the factors that may influence Job satisfaction are: Thought-Provoking work Remuneration Acknowledging the employee Good working conditions Encouraging the employees Job guarantee Enrollment policies Degree of independence and accountability Fringe benefits These factors influencing Job Satisfaction result in increased Job Performance by the employees. They also aid in retaining the personnel in the organization [21]. 1.4.1 Measuring Job Satisfaction Some of the tools used for measuring Job Satisfaction are: Wong & Law (2002) s JS scale Job Descriptive Index Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire Hackman & Oldham (1980) s JS tool [23] 9
1.5. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) has been in vogue since 1970. The original work of OCB was first given by Katz in 1964. Organ expanded this work and he is considered as the father of OCB [24]. Organizational citizenship Behaviour is a kind of behaviour that is above and beyond the call of duty [25]. This concept was first brought about by Bateman and Organ (1983) [26] 24 years ago. Organ (1997) [27] also considers OCB as performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place. Organ (1988) [28] proved that OCB could influence the performance of the employee in the organization. Literatures reveal that OCB has a positive impact on increasing the performance of the organization [29 31]. Organ (1988) [28] describes OCB as a unique behaviour that is not clearly distinguished by the formal reward system but it increases the performance in the organization. Costa & McCrae (1992) [32] identify five dimensions of OCB listed below: Civic Virtue Conscientiousness Altruism Courtesy Sportsmanship 10
1.5.1. Civic Virtue Deluga (1998) [33] defines Civic Virtue as the subordinate participation in organization political life and supporting the administrative function of the organization. 1.5.2. Conscientiousness Conscientiousness is defined by Organ (1988) [28] as the dedication to the job which exceed formal requirements such as long working hours and volunteer to perform jobs besides duties. 1.5.3. Altruism Altruism is defined as voluntary behaviours where an employee provides assistance to an individual with a particular problem to complete his/her task under unusual circumstances [34]. 1.5.4. Courtesy Courtesy indicates the behaviour that controls the problem and takes the necessary steps to decrease the effects of the problem in future [35]. 1.5.5. Sportsmanship Sportsmanship is defined as the behaviour of warmly tolerating the irritations that are an unavoidable part of nearly every organizational setting [28]. 11
1.6 Objective of the Study As mentioned earlier, Educational Institutions do not consider Emotional Intelligence as one of the criteria in recruitment of faculty. There have been researches to prove that Emotional Intelligence has a direct link with Job Satisfaction and there are also sufficient literature to prove the relationship between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. But, there is no study statistically proving Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour mediated through Job satisfaction in the field of education. So, the present study tries to build a model in studying the role of Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour, which is mediated through Job Satisfaction. This initiative has been carried out with reference to the educational industry. The educational institutions have been chosen for the study because the faculty is recruited mainly based on their qualification and their work experience. Their emotions at their work place are not considered during recruitment. Faculty with nominal control of emotions effect the level of satisfaction in their jobs and this in turn influences the teaching process including transfer of knowledge, moulding of student behaviour and also influences various other roles played by the faculty. Faculty members who are contented with their job display better Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and this in succession reflects on their work performance. 12
1.7 Overview of the thesis Chapter 2 reviews the literature relevant to the subject matter of this study. The theoretical framework and research on Emotional Intelligence are traced. An outline of emerging concept of Emotional Intelligence is provided. Research works related to faculty educational institutions, Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour are discussed. Focus of the present research is explained and finally the research questions to be addressed by the present study are enumerated. Chapter 3 discusses the conceptual model developed in this study. It lists the hypotheses to be tested. The sources of the data are described and the research instruments adapted are deciphered. The data collection procedure is also explained. The statistical methods used for the data are also elucidated. Chapter 4 provides the research results of factor analysis examining the factor structure of independent variables. The research results of Visual PLS relating to the hypotheses are also presented. Chapter 5 discusses the findings of the Visual PLS Structural Equation Modeling and analyses their interpretations are discussed. 13
Chapter 6 summarizes the findings and evaluates it from the theoretical and practical points of view. The limitations of the study and the scope for further research are also discussed. 1.8. References 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/higher_education 2. http://www.indiastudycenter.com/univ/list.htm 3. http://www.education.nic.in/uhe/uhe-overview.asp 4. http://www.indicareer.com/engineering-colleges-in-india.html 5. http://www.indiastudychannel.com/colleges/index.aspx?colleget ype=artsandsciencecollege 6. http://www.indicareer.com/mba-colleges-in-india.html 7. http://www.sacscoc.org/pdf/081705/faculty%20credentials.pdf 8. Lavania, D., Sharma. H., & Gupta, N. (2011, July). Faculty Recruitment and Retention: A Key for Managing talent in Higher Education. International Journal of Enterprise Computing and Business Systems, 1. Retrieved *****, from http://www.ijecbs.com/july2011/32.pdf 9. Coon, D., & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior, 11 th edn, Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth. 10. Wechsler, D. (1958). The Measurement and Appraisal of Adult Intelligence, 4 th edn, Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company. 11. http://www.fastcompany.com/online/35/emotion.html 12. http://eqi.org/history.htm#definition and History of "Emotional Intelligence" 14
13. Mayer, J. D., & Cobb, C. D. (2000), Educational Policy on Emotional Intelligence: Does It Make Sense?, Educational Psychology Review, 12, 163-183. 14. Mayer JD & Salovey P. (1990), Emotional Intelligence, Baywood Publishing Co., Inc. 15. Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT), (2002) 16. Schutte NS, Malouff JM, Hall LE, Haggerty DG, Hooper JT, Golden CJ & Dornheim L. (1998), Development and validation of a measure of Emotional Intelligence, Personality and Individual differences, 25: 167-177. 17. Locke 1976 cited in Brief, A. P, & Weiss, H. M. (2001). Organizational behaviour: affect in the workplace. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 279-307, p. 282. 18. Weiss, H. M. (2002). Deconstructing job satisfaction: separating evaluations, beliefs and affective experiences. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 173-194. 19. Brief, 1998 cited in Weiss, H. M. (2002). Deconstructing job satisfaction: separating evaluations, beliefs and affective experiences. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 173-194. 20. Oshagbemi, T. (2000). Gender Differences in the Job Satisfaction of University Teacher s. Women in Management Review, 15: 331-343. 21. Pareek, U. (2007). Understanding Organizational Behaviour, 2 nd edition, Oxford University Press. 22. Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr. J. W. (2004), Organizational Behaviour, 10 th edition, Mason, Ohio: South Western Cengage Learning. 23. Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work redesign, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 24. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/organizational_citizenship_behavior 15
25. Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C. (2000). Organizational Behaviour: Foundations, Realities and Challenges, 3 rd edition, Mason, Ohio: South Western Cengage Learning. 26. Bateman, T. S., & Organ, D. W. (1983). Job Satisfaction and the good soldier: The relationship between affect and citizenship. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 587-595. 27. Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behaviour: It s construct cleanup time. Human Performance, 10, 85-97. 28. Organ, D. W. (1988), Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: the good soldier syndrome, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. 29. Podsakoff, P. M., & Mackenzie, S. B. (1994), Organizational statutes for leadership really An Citizenship behaviour and sales unit effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Research, 3, 351-363. 30. Krilowicz, T. J., & Lowery, C. M. (1996), The impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on the performance appraisal process: a cross-cultural study. International Journal of Management, 13, 94-101. 31. Podsakoff, P. M., Ahearne, M. & Mackenzie, S. B. (1997). Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and the quantity and quality for work group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 262-270. 32. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: The NEO personality inventory. Psychological Assessment, 4, 5-13. 33. Deluga, R. J. (1998). Leader-Member exchange quality and effectiveness ratings: The role of subordinate supervisor conscientiousness similarity. Group and Organizational Management, 23, 189-216. 34. Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 653-663. 35. Lo, M. C., Ramayah, T. (2009). Dimensionality of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) in a Multicultural Society: The Case of Malaysia. International Business Research, 2, 48-55. 16