Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 16 Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO 2) capture and storage technology Volume 2: Carbon dioxide (CO2) storage and utilisation Edited by M. Mercedes Maroto-Valer CRC Press Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC WOODHEAD PUBLISHING LIMITED Oxford Cambridge New Delhi
Contents Contributor contact details xiii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xvii Foreword by Lord Oxburgh xix 1 Overview of carbon dioxide (CO 2) capture and storage technology 1 S. BOUZALAKOS and M. MERCEDES MAROTO-VALER, University of Nottingham, UK 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change 2 1.3 Carbon management and stabilisation routes 8 1.4 Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO 2) capture and transport technology 11 1.5 Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO 2) storage and utilisation technology 17 1.6 Future trends 19 1.7 Sources of further information and advice 20 1.8 Acknowledgements 22 1.9 References 22 Part 1 Geological sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 2 Screening and selection criteria, and characterisation techniques for the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 27 S. BACHU, Alberta Innovates Technology Futures, Canada 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Screening for storage suitability and site selection 28 2.3 Site characterisation 43 Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010
vi Contents 2.4 Estimation of carbon dioxide (CO 2) storage capacity 47 2.5 Future trends 51 2.6 Sources of further information and advice 52 2.7 References 53 3 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) sequestration in deep saline aquifers and formations 57 R. J. ROSENBAUER and B. THOMAS, US Geological Survey, USA 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Saline aquifers 58 3.3 Trapping mechanisms 64 3.4 Modeling of carbon dioxide (CO 2) sequestration 74 3.5 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) sequestration pilot sites 80 3.6 Future trends 86 3.7 Conclusions 88 3.8 Acknowledgements 88 3.9 References 88 4 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) sequestration in oil and gas reservoirs and use for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 104 B. VEBA and A.R. KOVSCEK, Stanford University, USA 4.1 Introduction 104 4.2 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) enhanced recovery mechanisms 109 4.3 Co-optimization of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and carbon storage 116 4.4 Future trends: geologic storage in tight rocks 118 4.5 Summary and conclusions 122 4.6 Sources of further information and advice 123 4.7 References 124 5 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) sequestration in unmineable coal seams and use for enhanced coalbed methane recovery (ECBM) 127 M. MAzzorn and RONNY PINI, ETH Zurich, Switzerland, G. STORTI, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, and L. BURLINI, ETH Zurich, Switzerland 5.1 Introduction 127 5.2 Storage in unmineable coal seams 128 5.3 Enhanced coalbed methane recovery 129 5.4 Competitive adsorption 131 5.5 Swelling and permeability 139 5.6 Mass transfer and enhanced coalbed methane (ECBM) modeling 148
Contents vii 5.7 Field tests 151 5.8 Future trends 155 5.9 Sources of further information and advice 158 5.10 References 159 Part II Maximising and verifying carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) storage in underground reservoirs 6 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) injection design to maximise underground reservoir storage and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) 169 R. Qi, T.C. LAFORCE and M.J. BLUNT, Imperial College London, UK 6.1 Carbon storage in geological formations 169 6.2 Experiments of capillary trapping 172 6.3 Field-scale design of storage in aquifers 175 6.4 Storage in oilfields 179 6.5 Discussion and conclusions 180 6.6 Future trends 181 6.7 Sources of further information and advice 181 6.8 Acknowledgements 182 6.9 References 182 7 Capillary seals for trapping carbon dioxide (CO 2) in underground reservoirs 185 T.A. MECKEL, The University of Texas at Austin, USA 7.1 Introduction 185 7.2 Calculations of anticipated capillary pressures and seal capacities 188 7.3 Monte Carlo predictions of capillary pressure within a reservoir seal 193 7.4 Discussion 195 7.5 Conclusions 198 7.6 Future trends 199 7.7 Sources of further information and advice 199 7.8 Acknowledgements 200 7.9 References 200 8 Measurement and monitoring technologies for verification of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) storage in underground reservoirs 203 R.A. CHADWICK, British Geological Survey, UK 8.1 Introduction 203
viii Contents 8.2 Background to storage site monitoring 204 8.3 Detection and measurement of carbon dioxide (CO 2) in the subsurface 207 8.4 Detection and measurement of carbon dioxide (CO 2) leakage to surface 225 8.5 Conclusions and future trends 233 8.6 Sources of further information and advice 235 8.7 References 235 9 Mathematical modeling of the long-term safety of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage in underground reservoirs 240 K. PRUESS, J. BIRKHOLZER and Q. ZHOU, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, USA 9.1 Introduction 240 9.2 Coupled processes: a challenge for mathematical models 243 9.3 Ilustrative modeling applications 244 9.4 Conclusions 259 9.5 Acknowledgements 261 9.6 References 261 Part III Terrestrial and ocean sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and environmental impacts 10 Terrestrial sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 271 R. LAL, The Ohio State University, USA 10.1 Introduction 271 10.2 The terrestrial Pool and its role in the global carbon cycle 273 10.3 Emissions from agricultural versus other activities 276 10.4 Basic principles of carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems 279 10.5 Potential of terrestrial sequestration 290 10.6 Challenges of terrestrial sequestration 291 10.7 Extrapolation 295 10.8 Soil and terrestrial carbon as indicators of climate change 296 10.9 Conclusions 297 10.10 References 298 11 Ocean sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 304 D. GOLOMB and S. PENNELL, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA 11.1 Introduction 304 11.2 History of carbon dioxide (CO 2) deep ocean storage proposals 305
Contents ix 11.3 Legal constraints of deep ocean storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) 307 11.4 Sources of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2) for ocean storage 308 11.5 Ocean structure 309 11.6 Properties of carbon dioxide (CO 2) 311 11.7 Modeling of carbon dioxide (CO 2) release 312 11.8 Injection of carbon dioxide, water and pulverized limestone (CO2/H20/CaCO3) emulsion 313 11.9 Future trends 318 11.10 Conclusions 320 11.11 Sources of further information and advice 320 11.12 References 321 12 Environmental risks and impacts of carbon dioxide (CO 2) leakage in terrestrial ecosystems 324 M. D. STEVEN, K. L. SMITH and J. J. COLLS, University of Nottingham, UK 12.1 Introduction 324 12.2 Leak scenarios 325 12.3 Impacts of terrestrial leakage 327 12.4 Atmospheric enrichment of carbon dioxide (CO 2) 332 12.5 Leak monitoring techniques 334 12.6 Conclusions and future trends 336 12.7 Sources of further information and advice 338 12.8 References 338 13 Environmental risks and performance assessment of carbon dioxide (00 2) leakage in marine ecosystems 344 J. BLACKFORD, S. WIDDICOMBE and D. LOWE, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK, and B. CHEN, Heriot Watt University, UK 13.1 Introduction 344 13.2 The physical and chemical behaviour of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the marine system 346 13.3 Marine ecosystem impacts of carbon dioxide (CO 2) leakage 358 13.4 Leak monitoring options 365 13.5 Mitigation of leaks 366 13.6 Future trends 366 13.7 Sources of further information and advice 367 13.8 References 368
x Contents Part IV Advanced concepts for carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) storage and utilisation 14 Industrial utilization of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 377 M. ARESTA and A. DIBENEDETTO, University Of Bah, Italy 14.1 Introduction 377 14.2 The conditions for using carbon dioxide (CO 2) 378 14.3 The carbon dioxide (CO 2) sources and its value 380 14.4 Technological uses of carbon dioxide (CO 2) 381 14.5 Biological enhanced utilization 384 14.6 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) conversion as 'storage' of excess electric energy or intermittent energies 391 14.7 Production of chemicals 398 14.8 Conclusions and future trends 404 14.9 Sources of further information and advice 405 14.10 References 405 15 Biofixation of carbon dioxide (CO 2) by microorganisms 411 B. WANG and C.Q. LAN, University of Ottawa, Canada 15.1 Introduction 411 15.2 Basic principles and methods 412 15.3 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) fixation microorganisms: chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs 414 15.4 Carbon dioxide (CO 2) fixation by microalgae 418 15.5 Advantages and limitations 426 15.6 Future trends 427 15.7 References 428 16 Mineralisation of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 433 R. ZEVENHOVEN and J. FAGERLUND, Abo Akademi University, Finland 16.1 Introduction 433 16.2 Basic principles and methods 435 16.3 Technologies and potential applications 438 16.4 Related issues 447 16.5 Future trends 451 16.6 Sources of further information and advice 452 16.7 References 453 Appendix: Energy efficiency of mineral carbonation processes 460
Contents xi 17 Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 463 JEFFREY C. S. Wu, Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taiwan 17.1 Introduction 463 17.2 Fundamentals of photocatalysis 465 17.3 Renewable energy from photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide (CO 2) 470 17.4 Advantages and limitations of photocatalytic processes 495 17.5 Future trends 495 17.6 Sources of further information and advice 497 17.7 References 497 Index 503