COMPARING MOTIVATION OF JAPANESE COMPUTER PERSONNEL VERSUS THOSE OF THE UNITED STATES

COMPARING MOTIVATION OF JAPANESE COMPUTER PERSONNEL VERSUS THOSE OF THE UNITED STATES J. Daniel Couger Center for Research on Creativity and Innovation Akira Ishikawa Bconomics and Business University of Colorado Aoyama Gakuin University Colorado Springs, CO, USA Tokyo, Japan ABSTRACT A sunny of perceptions of I.S. computer personnel - managers, analysts, progr ammer/analysts and application programmers - was conducted in Japan, using the JDS- DP II, a modification of the job diagnostic survey inrrrument. Data were collected on 15 job variables, related to four motivation aspects: job components, satisfaction levels, need for growth/achievement and goal participation/feedback. The results were compared to those of a similar survey for the same job typ in the United States. The survey revealed that the work itselfwas ranked highest among 11 motivating factors, for both countries. In two job categories, middle management and analysts, Japanese respondents had responses significantly dtrerent from their U.S. countetparcs. On the other dimensions the responses in Japan were similar to those in the United States. Cultural factors that might have affected the survey results are discussed. * The researchers wish to thank the Central Academy of Information Technology for their sponsorship of this project. Introduction During 1993, a motivation survey was made of Japan computer personnel similar to the one conducted for the United States in 1988 [Couger, et al., 11. In Japan, the Information Processing Development Association is the central body for surveying, training and educating I.S. professionals. The association conducts a national survey each year as a part of a state-of-the-art assessment. The motivation survey was appended to the annual survey for 1993. During November, 10,928 questionnaires were mailed; 1,524 usable responses were received: middlemanagers (123), first-line managers (217), analysts (167). programmer/analysts (429), application programmers (346) and miscellaneous (188). The return rate was comparable to that of other surveys in Japan. The JDS- DP II was translated into Japanese and validated before the survey. A working group on Comparative Design and Analysis was assigned the task of ensuring comparability both in terms of content and semantic validity. Data were collected on 15 job variables, related to four motivation aspects: job components, satisfaction levels, need for growth/achievement and goal participation/ feedback. The study answers two questions: Question 1 - Are Japan computer personnel similar in characteristics to their U.S. counterparts? Question 2 - If there are differences, what are the CauseS? The research results were compared to those of Hofstede [2,3] to make the cultural comparison. Background on the Survey Methodology Two survey instruments were utilized for the study: 1) the JDS-DP II version of the Job Diagnostic Survey and 2) the Herxberg survey of key motivational factors. Each will be discussed separately. JDS-DP II Survey Instrument. The reliability and validity of the JDS-DP survey instrument was substantiated in 1978 [Couger and Zawacki, 41. This instrument was utilized to derive a database on more than 16,500 U.S. computer personnel and over 13,008 computer personnel in other countries. The JDS is based on the job characteristics model theory of motivation developed by Turner and Lawrence [5] and expanded by Hackman and Lawler [6] The essence of this motivation theory is that an individual s 1060-3425/95$4.00@1995IEEE 1012

need for growth must be matched by the degree of richness of the job assigned to that individual, to ensure motivation and productivity. Individual growth need strength (GNS) is defined as the strength of the individual s need for challenge, for moving beyond his/her present level of knowledge and ability, for being stretched. The motivating potential of a job is determined by the degree of richness of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback from the job. The job s MPS (motivating potential score) is based on the five core job dimensions. When MPS is matched to individual growth need, motivation can be expected to improve. If an imbalance occurs, motivation is not reaching its potential. In the tables below, results from the Japan survey are compared to the U.S. data base. Statistically significant differences are identified. Analysis of the survey results was facilitated by use of SPSS. Responses on each of the 15 survey variables will be analyzed below, grouped by survey category. Definitions for the survey variables are provided in the Appendix. Her&erg Survey h.mument The second part of the survey utilized the Herzberg instrument 171. He&erg used his survey instrument to compare motivation factors for a variety of occupations, but did not include computer personnel. Couger [8] replicated the study for computer personnel. Table 1 shows that the work itself was ranked first place by Japan computer personnel, as it was in the United States. This result has been the same in every country surveyed with the JDS-DP II [Couger, 9, lo], despite significant cultural differences: Singapore, Austria, Hong Kong, Israel, Taiwan, Australia, Finland, South Africa, Spain and New Zealand. Table 2 shows Japan rankings of the top five factors by gender, job type and age. The work itself was ranked first place regardless of demographic factor. Standard deviation was lower than for any other category except recognition and quality of supervision. The opportunity for recognition is ranked second for all demographic categories except age 20-30, where it is ranked third place. Pay and benefits was ranked second by that age group. Pay and benefits was ranked third through sixth for the other categories. Fourth and fifth place rankings were fairly evenly split between oppottunity for advancement and opportunity for achievement. Table 1 Rankings of the Herzberg motivational factors Motivation Factor U.S. Japan The Work Itself 1 1 Opportunity for Achievement 2 4 opportunity for Advancement 3 5 Pay and Benefits 4 3 Recognition 5 2 Increased Responsibility 6 10 Quality of Supervision 7 9 Interpersonal Relations wl Peers 8 6 Job Security 9 8 Working Conditions 10 11 Company Policies 11 7 Table 2 Japan rankings of the top factors -- by gender, job, age Motivation Gender Job Ane Factor M E P/A M~I 20-30 3140 40+ The WorkItself 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Recognition 2222322 Pay&Benefits 3 5 3 4 2 3 6 Advancement 5345 443 Achievement 4453 555 Company Policies 4 Results of the Her&erg survey are highly related to those of the JDS. The whole premise of job characteristics theory is that the work itself is the principal motivator. The results of the He&erg survey supports this premise. A study of 57,000 U.S. employees across jobs over 30 years indicates that this holds true for both men and women [Jurgensen, 111. When managers concentrate on the key components of the job to ensure that the job s motivating potential is matched with the individual s need for growth, they are assured of satisfactory employee motivation. This result supports the use of the job characteristics model for computer personnel. That model is oriented toward the proposition that work is the most important motivator.

Analysis of Survey Results GNS vs MPS It is appropriate to begin the analysis by comparing GNS versus MPS. This can be considered the bottom line comparison for motivation, demrminmg whether the job is rich enough to meet an individual s growth need. Table 3 provides mean GNS/MPS responses with identification of statistically significant differences. All surveyreqmseswererecordedonascaleof7.all significant differences cited in the paper are at the significance level of probability equal to or less than.os. Table 3 C!omparison between the individual s growth need strength (GNS) and the job s motivating potential (MPS), scale of 7. A mismatch exists for the Japanese analyst. Job Category GNS MPS Japan 4.88 5.32 united states 6.25+ 5.80 Japan 5.12 5.20 united states 6.25+ 5.70 **********************wk*******w*w*~*tbb*llub*~ Japan 5.19 5.09 United States 6.00+ 5.37 **********************Clr******************~*llM** / Japan 5.08 4.90 united states 5.95+ 5.37 Japan 4.67 4.45 united states 5.80+ 5.19 (Significant difference indicated by plus (+) is at the probability s.05 level). Mean GNS for the Japanese survey participants is significantly lower than that of their U.S. counterpar& in all five job types. However, mean MPS is also significantly lower for four of the five jobs. The U.S. norms represent a good match, based on 14 years of observing their applicability in the U.S. information systems field. Following job characteristics theory, since both GNS and MPS are significantly lower in the four Japanese jobs, there seems to be a satisfactory match in MPS/GNS for Japanese survey mqondents for their jobs. The exception is the Japanese analyst position, where mean MPS is not significantly lower than that of U.S. UUllptS. Thea results appear to indicate that thejob of Japanese analysts is too rich, that these individuals feel overstretched. Their GNS is significantiy lower than their American counterparts but their job is perceived to be just asrichp8fbafofamericananalysts.wewillaxaminethis situation later. Analysis of survey results revealed another anomaly. GNS of Japanese middle managers was significantly lower than that of all other job types except application programmers. In all the other cotmtriea surveyed, persons with higher need for growth move into higher technical jobs or higher levels of manage-t. This was true for Asian countries and for North American/European countries as well. For some reason, the survey respondents filling the middle management jobs in Japan do not have higher GNS than their subordinates. Could it be that this job is not perceived to be as challenging as other jobs, therefore, only the lower GNS personnel accept the opportunity for promotion to middle management? We will examine this situation further in the Conclusions section of the paper. Core job dimensions Table 4 depicts the survey responses on the five core job dimensions which make up MPS. Job core theory suggests that when a GNS/MPS mismatch occurs, ss in the case of Japanese analysts, two alternatives exist: 1) replace the individuals with persons of higher GNS or 2) restructure jobs to reduce the MPS to be equivalent with the GNS of job holders. Obviously, the second alternative is the easier one to implement. Table 4 shows that responses for Japan analysts were Q@ significantly lower those of U.S. analysts in four of the five core job dimensions. In the fifth dimension, feedback from the job, the Japanese response is significantly lower. Experience in balancing MPS and GNS reveals that skiil variety is the target dimension when the job is too rich for the incumbent. The scope of thejobcanbereducsdtobringthempsinlinewiththe lower GNS of analysts. 1014

Table 4 Comparative mponses for five core job dimensions that comprise tbe job s motivating potential Skill Task Task Feedback Job Category variety Identity Significance Autonomy ftom Job Japan 5.58-5.72 5.72-5.67 4.77- united states 6.15 5.80 6.30 6.05 5.30 Jaw 5.57-5.79 5.71-5.63 4.50- united states 6.10 5.60 6.25 5.95 5.25 Japan 5.67 5.64 5.62 5.49 4.40- united states 5.55 5.35 5.75 5.30 5.20 Progmmmer~ Japan 5.18 5.37 5.44 5.27 4.25- united states 5.45 5.30 5.70 5.50 5.15 Japan 4.68-4.88 4.99 4.66-4.06- united states 5.25 5.00 5.45 5.15 5.10 (Significant differences indicated by plus( +) or minus(-), are all at the probability 5.05 level) It would appear that the problem of low GNS of middle managers compared to all other job categories in Japan needs similar resolution. In the United States, and in other countries surveyed as well, people with GNS higher than that of their peers in their present job category tend to seek higher positions in the organization. GNS of managers in the national and international databases is higher than that of their subordinates. For some reason, this is not the case of middle manager respondents in Japan. Is their job too rich? This question will be discussed in the Conclusions section of the paper. Goal Related Variables Table 5 provides a comparison of responses on the goal related variables: goal clarity, goal setting participation and feedback on goals. The survey results for Japanese computer persome are quite similar to those for the United States. There are only four differences for the entire table. Japanese analysts perceive goal setting participation at a significantly higher level than their American counterparts. So do programmer/analysts. only two responses are significantly different. Japanese application programmers perceive goal clarity at a level of only 4.49 on the scale of 7, significantly lower than their American counterparts, who perceive a level of 5.0. Japanese middle managers perceive feedback at a significantly higher level that do American middle managers. Table 5 Comparative responses on goal related variables God Goal Setting Feedback Job Category Clarity Participation on Goals Japan 5.27 5.40 4.72+ united states 5.20 5.50 4.22 Japan 5.25 5.13 4.35 united states 5.05 5.15 4.10 Japan 5.12 4.96+ 4.38 united states 5.00 4.35 4.00 / Japan 5.05 4.73 + 4.12 United States 5.00 4.10 3.85 Jaw 4.49-3.94 3.91 United States 5.00 3.80 3.85 (Significant differences indicated by plus(+) or minus(-),are all at the probability 5.05 level) 1015

Table 6 could have been consolidated with Table 5; however, we wanted to highlight the problem of general feedback - that is, feedback not specific to goals. Responses on feedback on goal setting (Table 5) hover around the midpoint of the rating scale. Table 6 Comparative responses on general feedback Job Category General Feedback Japan 4.58 united states 4.10 Japan 4.34 united states 3.75 Japan 4.16 United States 3.95 / Japan 4.08 united states 3.95 Japan 4.04 United States 3.95 (Significant differences indicated by plus( +) or minus(-), are all at the probability 5.05 level) They are all lower than desired, in all job categories. The responses are even lower for feedback in general. Note that the norm for U.S. personnel is also quite low. Apparently there is not a good role model on feedback for any job type in either country. The responses were similar for all other countries surveyed. Satisfaction Levels Table 7 provides the survey responses on the satisfaction variables: general satisfaction, supervisory satisfaction and pay satisfaction. Japan personnel perceive general satisfaction at a significantly lower level in three job types: first-line managers, programmer/analysts and programmers. Pay satisfaction is significantly lower for all Japanese job types, compared to U.S. computer personnel. Satisfaction with supervision is not significantly different for the two countries -- in any job type. This is a very important result. Based on survey results in other countries, it means that, despite some of the other problems perceived by Japanese computer personnel, they believe their supervisors have their best interests at heart. Based on earlier research results, it also means that they are open to working with their supervisors to correct the other deficiencies revealed in the survey. Table 7 Comparative responses on satisfaction variables General Supervisory Pay Job Category Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction Japan 4.81 4.36 3.57- united states 5.35 4.55 4.85 Japan 4.66-4.14 3.21- united states 5.35 4.50 4.65 Japan 4.74 4.37 3.52- united states 5.10 4.65 4.60 l Japan 4.57-4.12 3.19- united states 5.35 4.60 4.50 Jaw 4.43-4.41 3.33- united states 5.30 4.60 4.40 (Significant differences indicated by plus( +) or minus(-), are all at the probability s.05 level) Social Need Versus Growth Need Strength Table 8 provides a survey result that has occurred in all countries where computer personnel were measured with the JDS-DP. Social need strength, that is, the need to interact with other persons, is significantly lower than growth need strength. The computer field attracts people with high need for growth but relatively low need for social interaction. In this table the comparison is not between country but between SNS and GNS for each country. GNS is significantly higher than SNS for all job categories, for both Japan and the United States. The social need strength of personnel in the computer field is the lowest of all 500 occupations measured in the U.S. The computer field attracts persons who work very well alone. Japan computer personnel appear to be no different from their U.S. counterparts in this respect. Although SNS has not been surveyed for other Japanese job types, discussion of the results with Japanese 1016

managers indicated that they believed the same differences occur in their country. This attribute has often proven to be detrimental. Computer persome1 may not interact often enough with their clients to ensure that the applications being developed truly meet client needs. This is also a reason for the low rating on feedback from management. Since both managers and subordinates have low need for social interaction, they do not interact frequently enough to provide adequate feedback. Table 8 Responses on social need strength versus growth need strength. SNS is lower thsn GNS in every case. Unlike the previous tables, the comparisons are within country, rather than between country. Job Category U.S. Japan GNS 6.25 4.88 SNS 4.45-4.64- GNS 6.25 5.12 SNS 4.35-4.65- GNS 6.00 5.19 SNS 4.25 4.66- / GNS 5.95 5.08 SNS 4.25-4.65- GNS 5.80 4.67 SNS 4.15-4.47- (Significant differences indicated by minus(-), are all at the probability s.05 level) Summary and Conclusions The job characteristics model of motivation was used to compare motivation perceptions of Japanese computer personnel to those of the United States. This model is based on the assumption that the most important motivator is the work itself. Japanese responses confirmed that this model applies to Japan as well as United States computer personnel. In both countries the work itself was ranked first among 11 key motivators. Deference in GNS For all five Japanese jobs, GNS was significantly lower than that of their U.S. counterparts. The difference many be due to the individualistic/collectivistic differences in the two culturea. Hofstede s research revealed this important cultural indicator: In individualistic societies, a child learns very early to think of itself as I instead of as part of we...individualism is the degree to which people in a country prefer to act as individuals rather than members of a group. The opposite of Individualism can be called Collectivism. [ 121 Yet, Hofstede points out in his latest book that there are fewer cross-cultural differences in highly technical occupations. He specifically refers to Her&erg s characterization of the work itself as an intrinsically motivating factor that distinguishes these occupations, People in occupations requiring higher education tend to score intrinsic important... and the work itself represents intrinsically motivating jobs. [ 131 He comments that if there is to be any convergence between national cultures it should be on this dimension (individualism-collectivism). [ 141 Japanese reponses to the JDS-DP survey instrument are quite similar to the American norms for all but two job categories. Several possibilities exists for the cause of these differences. Job This job may be perceived to have less challenge than other jobs for computer personnel. Only the lower GNS subordinates move into the middle-manager job. The explanation may be a Japanese cultural factor: it is not proper to covet your boss job. * Also, in Japan there is more movement between disciplines. Persons from lower GNS disciplines often move into I.S. as middle managers, instead of moving up from the I.S. ranks. Another possibility is that the selection criteria for promotion to middle manager do not include individualism, high need for personal growth and achievement. Perhaps there is more collectivism emphasis in the selection criteria, seeking persons who will blend well with the management team, persons with minimum individualistic tendencies. Responses on goal feedback and general feedback reveal a need for special management attention in Japan. 1017

The respomm hovered around the midpoint of the scale of seven, indicating an opportunity for improvement. The same is true for the United States. In fact, this is a universal problem, occurring not only in these two countries but in all the countries where computer personnel have been measumd with the JDS-DP. One cause is the low social need of people in this field. Nevertheless, while people rarely change their need for social interaction, they m change their behavior. U.S. companies have instituted training programs to help computer personnel learn techniques to communicate more effectively and to work more effectively in groups. When low SNS personnel have the need awareness, they work diligently to acquire these new skills. Apprising them of their low SNS, in an occupation where strong relationship with clients is essential, is usually sufficient to attain the need awareness for additional training. Stated another way, when it is made clear to them that better interactive skills are necessary for proper performance of their jobs, their high need for growth will motivate them to learn the behavioral skills needed to overcome their low SNS. Job This job is very rich in all the factors that make up the job s motivating potential: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback from the job. It is just as rich as the MPS for U.S. analysts. However, Japanese analysts have significantly lower need for growth than their American counterparts. This condition results in a mismatch between MPS and GNS. Management may expect more from persons in this senior level job. Further study is needed on the causes for the MPSIGNS mismatch in this job. The low ratings on pay satisfaction are undoubtedly due to the tightening economic conditions in Japan. Previously I.S. employees were paid for overtime work. Now few are given overtime compensation. Nevertheless, the climate for motivation is quite satisfactory for improving the few deficiencies revealed by the survey, gauged by comparing responses to the U.S. environment. Job holders in all job types in Japan reported satisfaction with their management. The positive responses on the goal related variables support this conclusion. Under such a condition, top level managers can work with middlemanagers and first-line managers can work with analysts to redesign the job scope to be consistent with the need for growth. Defdtion APPENDIX of survey variables 1. Key job dimensions: Objective characteristics of the job itself. A. Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities in carrying out the work, which involve the use of a number of different skills and talents of the employee. B. Task identity: The degree to which the job requires the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work-i.e., doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome. C. Task significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people-whether in the immediate organization or in the external environment. D. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the employee in scheduling his/her work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. E. Feedback from the iob itself: The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the employee obtaining information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. 2. Satisfaction measures: The private, affective reactions or feelings an employee gets from working on his job. A. General satisfaction: An overall measure of the degree to which the employee is satisfied and happy in his or her work. B. Snecific satisfactions: These scales tap several specific aspects of the employee s job satisfaction: Bl. Pay satisfaction B2. Supervisory satisfaction B3. Satisfaction with co-workers 3. Social need strength: This is a measure of the degree to which the employee needs to interact with other employees. 1018

4. Goal clarity and accomplishment: These scales measure the degree to which employees understand and accept organimtional goals. Further, it taps into the employees feelings about goal setting participation, goal difficulty, and feedback on goal accomplishment. A. Goal clarity. How clear and specific the goals are for the job or the person. The person has a clear sense of priorities on hisbr goals. B. Goal difficulty. The extent that goals or work objectives require a great deal of effort to complete. C. Goal acceptance. The extent that the person is willing to accept organizational goals. D. Goal settinn muticiuatioq. Their feeling of having involvement in the goal setting process--of having an impact. E. Feedback on goal accomnlishment. 5. Individual growth need strength: This scale measures the individual s need for personal accomplishment and for learning and developing beyond his/her present level of knowledge and skills. [7] Her&erg, F., Mauaner, F. and Snyderman, B., The Motivation to w& John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1959. [S] Gouger, J.D., Motivators vs. demotivatom in the information systems environment, Journal of Svstems Manas- June, 1988, pp. 3641. 191 Gouger, J.D., and helsberger, H., comparing motivation of p mgrammersandamdystaindifferent sccio/politicalenvixmments, Conmuter Personnel, September, 1988, pp. 13-17. [lo] Gouger, I.D., Comparison of motivation norms for programmer /analysts in the Pacific Rim and the U.S., IntemationaJ Information Svstems, Vol.1, No. 3, July, 1992, pp. 16-30. [ll] Jurgensen, C.E., Job Preferences, Journal of Aonlied Psvcholonv, Vol. 63, 1978, pp. 267-276. [12] Hofstede, 1994, op.cit., p. 6. [13] Hofstede, 1991, op.cit., p. 57. [14] Ibid., p. 77. 6. Motivating potential score: A score reflecting the potential of a job for eliciting positive internal work motivation on the part of employees. REFERENCES Ul PI r31 r41 [51 [61 Gouger, J.D., Gppermann, E.B. and Amoroso, D.L., Changes in motivation -- comparison over a decade, Information.Resources Management Journal, Vol. 7, No. 2, Spring, 1994, pp. J-14. Hofstede, G.H., Culture and oreanizations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991. Hofstede, G.H., Management scientists are human, Management Science, 40, No. 1, 1994, pp. 4-13. Gouger, J.D., and Zawacki, R.A., Motivating and mananinn comouter oersonnel, Wiley, New York, 1980. Turner, A.N., and Lawrence, P.R., Industrial iobs and the worker, Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, 1965. Hackman, J.R., and Lawler, E.E., Employee reactions to job characteristics, Journal of Annlied Psvcholoev, Vol. 60, No. 2, 1975, pp. 159-170. 1019