UNIVERSITY OF PROFESSIONAL STUDIES, ACCRA INTRODUCTION TO TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT UNDERGRADUATE LEVEL 300 FUNCTIONS OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR MANAGING QUALITY
Learning Outcomes By the end of this lecture, students should be able to: Explain the functions of Quality management Analysis the tools and techniques for managing quality Practically apply the tools and technique in their daily lives Apply the tool or technique needed/ to use in a given situation
QUALITY MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS- To manage quality in an organisation four functions are required as follows: Quality Planning Quality Assurance Quality Control Quality improvement
Quality Planning It is agreed that proper planning prevents poor performance as a result planning is a vital tool to achieving quality. The steps involved in planning include; Define purpose, mission and vision and what makes you different. Identify the customer Identify and understand the needs and requirements of the customer Design the service or product based on those needs and requirements design the process of production
TECHNIQUES FOR QUALITY PLANNING: Brainstorming Segmentation, Targeting and Position SWOT Quality Function Deployment Strategic Planning Design of Experiment Market intelligence Customer journey mapping Mind mapping
Brainstorming / Brain Writing to develop ideas This involves bring two or more people together to deliberate and discuss issues in relation to the constancy of purpose of the organisation such as the mission, vision and values. It requires that participants table various ideas and initiatives to ensure excellence becomes the hallmark of the organisation in relation to customer satisfaction.
Mind Mapping to expand and profile ideas Mind mapping is a highly effective way of getting information in and out of your brain. Mind mapping is a creative and logical means of note-taking and note-making that literally "maps out" your ideas. All Mind Maps have some things in common. They have a natural organizational structure that radiates from the centre and use lines, symbols, words, colour and images according to simple, brain-friendly concepts. Mind mapping converts a long list of monotonous information into a colourful, memorable and highly organized diagram that works in line with your brain's natural way of doing things. The Mind Map is the external mirror of your own radiant or natural thinking facilitated by a powerful graphic process, which provides the universal key to unlock the dynamic potential of the brain.
Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning Segmentation, targeting, and positioning together comprise a three stage process. We first (1) determine which kinds of customers exist, then (2) select which ones we are best off trying to serve and, finally, (3) implement our segmentation by optimizing our products/services for that segment and communicating that we have made the choice to distinguish ourselves that way.
Continues: Segmentation involves finding out what kinds of consumers with different needs exist. In the auto market, for example, some consumers demand speed and performance, while others are much more concerned about roominess and safety. In general, it holds true that You can t be all things to all people, and experience has demonstrated that firms that specialize in meeting the needs of one group of consumers over another tend to be more profitable.
Benefits Avoid head-on competition with other firms trying to capture the same customers Develop new offerings and expand profitable brands and products lines Remarket older, less-profitable products and brands Identify early adopters Redistribute money and sales efforts to focus on your most profitable customers Retain at-risk customers in danger of defecting to your competitors
Example
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) After the purpose of the organisation is established, the need to identify customer requirements and translate this requirement to products specification and the technique to do this is the Quality Function Deployment. The QFD idea is to incorporate the requirements of customer into product design such that the customer would be delighted. It is also known as the house of quality because it is a single framework that incorporates the voice of the customer, the prioritized requirements of customers as in what competitors are doing for other customers and the requirements from the regulatory bodies into a single product or service that is acceptable by all.
Benefits of QFD Captures and prioritizes what is important to the customer in a faster-cheaper-better manner Clarifies trade offs and control points: what vs How, Our product vs competitor s product Improves customer satisfaction Facilitates technology insertion Improves team effectiveness Reduce cycle time
Example of QFD or House of Quality
Origin of the Kano Model Prof. Noriaki Kano, a very astute student of Dr. Ishikawa, developed an interesting model to address the various ways in which Six Sigma practitioners could prioritize customer needs. This becomes particularly important when trying to rank the customer s wants and desires in a logical fashion.
Kano Model The Kano model is a theory of product development and customer satisfaction developed in the 1980s by Professor Noriaki Kano which classifies customer preferences into five categories. These categories have been translated into English using various names (delighters/exciters, satisfiers, dissatisfiers, etc.), but all refer to the original articles written by Kano. The Kano model offers some insight into the product attributes which are perceived to be important to customers.
The purpose of the tool is to support product specification and discussion through better development of team understanding. Kano's model focuses on differentiating product features, as opposed to focusing initially on customer needs. Kano also produced a methodology for mapping consumer responses to questionnaires onto his model.
The Practical Side to the Kano Model The Kano model is a tool that can be used to prioritize the Critical to Quality characteristics, as defined by the Voice of the Customer, which is explain in greater detail below. The three categories identified by the Kano model are: Must Be: The quality characteristic must be present or the customer will go elsewhere. Performance: The better we are at meeting these needs, the happier the customer is. Delighter: Those qualities that the customer was not expecting but received as a bonus.
The red line on the Kano model represents the Must Bes. That is, whatever the quality characteristic is, it must be present; if the quality characteristic is not met, the customer will go elsewhere. The customer does not care if the product is wrapped in 24-carat gold, only that it is present and is functionally doing what it was designed to do. An example of this would be a client who checks into a hotel room expecting to find a bed, curtains and bathroom in the room. These items are not called out for by the customer, but would definitely cause them to go elsewhere if any of these characteristics were not present.
The blue line on the Kano model represents the Performance. This line reflects the Voice of the Customer. The better we are at meeting these needs, the happier the customer is. It is here where the trade-offs take place. Someone wanting good gas mileage would not likely expect to have a vehicle that has great accelerations from a standing position.
By far, the most interesting evaluation point of the Kano model is the Delighter (the green line). This represents those qualities that the customer was not expecting, but received as a bonus. A few years ago, it was customary that when a car was taken back to the dealer for a warranty oil change, the vehicle was returned to the owner with its body washed, mirrors polished, carpets vacuumed, etc. After a few trips to the dealer, this Delighter became a Must Be characteristic.
Thus, a characteristic that once was exciting was now a basic need, and a part of the customer s expectations. Another example of this is the amenities platter that some hotels provide their platinum customers upon checking in. I am one of those clients entitled to such a treat. This practice was certainly a delight. It has, however, become an expected part of my check-in, such that if there is no platter waiting in my room, I m on the phone with the front desk. Once the critical to quality characteristics have been prioritized, the last step of the Kano model involves an analysis of evaluating or assessing just how well we can satisfy each of Dr. Noriaki Kano s classifications.
Design of Experiments (DOE) This is a technique used to design the process or the products to experiments usually using prototypes to test for the viability of a process or a product. During design of experiments all the noise factors that would impede the product or process are identified (Both controllable and uncontrollable noise factors).
Market intelligence The information relevant to a company s markets, gathered and analysed specifically for the purpose of accurate and confident decision-making in determining market opportunity, market penetration strategy, and market development metrics. MI is necessary when entering a foreign market. Market intelligence includes gathering of data from the company s external environment
SWOT ANALYSIS
Strategic Planning Strategic planning is an organizational management activity that is used to set priorities, focus energy and resources, strengthen operations, ensure that employees and other stakeholders are working toward common goals, establish agreement around intended outcomes/results, and assess and adjust the organization's direction in response to a changing environment. It is a disciplined effort that produces fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an organization is, who it serves, what it does, and why it does it, with a focus on the future. Effective strategic planning articulates not only where an organization is going and the actions needed to make progress, but also how it will know if it is successful.
Customer Journey Mapping It looks at mapping out the total customer experience across all touch points between the customer and the organisation, from initial contact, through purchasing, after sales support, and hopefully onto renewal / repurchase. It maps the experience that: you want to provide to the customer the customer would like to receive
Quality Assurance This also known as risk management and thus focus on defects or risk prevention. The steps involve in assuring quality includes; Anticipate the likely problems to occur during production Put in place preventive mechanisms Gather and analyse the needed resources for production Start production/implement the process
Techniques for Quality Assurance Flow Charting Failure Mode and effects Analysis Total Production Maintenance Just in Time
Flow Charting A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the process flow direction.
Example of Flow Chart
When to Use a Flowchart To develop understanding of how a process is done. To study a process for improvement. To communicate to others how a process is done. When better communication is needed between people involved with the same process. To document a process. When planning a project.
Common Flowchart Symbols Different flow chart symbols have different meanings. The most common flow chart symbols are: Terminator: An oval flow chart shape indicating the start or end of the process. Process: A rectangular flow chart shape indicating a normal process flow step. Decision: A diamond flow chart shape indication a branch in the process flow. Connector: A small, labelled, circular flow chart shape used to indicate a jump in the process flow. (Shown as the circle with the letter A, below.) Data: A parallelogram that indicates data input or output (I/O) for a process. Document: Used to indicate a document or report (see image in sample flow chart below).
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis It is analytical technique that recognizes and evaluates the potential failure of a product or a process and its effects. It is used to identify actions that could eliminate or reduce the chance of potential failure. As its name suggest, it provides the nature in which the failure will come and its possible effects on a process or product. It is a quality assurance technique that is used to identify the risk, failures and hazards of the processes. It also recognizes and evaluates the severity and frequency of the failures occurrences and analyse it possible effects on the process.
Continues: It therefore identifies the critical control points and mechanism that could eliminate or reduce the chance of potential failure. As its name suggest, it would provide the nature in which the failure will come and its possible effects on a process or product. In auditing it is the same as the risk register which is used to identify, assessed, address the potential risk in organisation operations. HACCP is a FMEA concept, and the introduction of risk registers in corporate governance and internal audit practices are all based on the FMEA approach.
Continues: It should be noted the FMEA is a proactive or before the events action requiring a team effort to easily bring about changes in design and production. The FMEA which is done by computer software usually provides a risk priority number that ranks all the possible failures in order of priority or those that must be dealt with immediately.
Benefits of FMEA A systematic review of the risk associated with the process It determines the intensity and frequency of the risk occurrence It determines the effects that identified failure or risk will have on other items in the product or process. Helps in uncovering oversights, misjudgements, and errors that may have been made Predetermine the preventive mechanism to address likely failures in the process.
Benefits continues: It determines the effects that any failure will have on other items in the product or process. Helps in uncovering oversights, misjudgements, and errors that may have been made Provides training for new employees by exposing them to possible failures a process or product is likely to experience It also communicates information to other professionals who may have similar problems
Practical Application In the insurance industry, FMEA is a useful method for risk assessments. It is also useful in evaluating risk associated with a particular project before it starts.
Just in Time This is the technique that ensures that organisations produce outputs at the right quantities, at the right time, and with the right resources. This philosophy is aimed at avoiding inventory and its associated cost. But organisations need not to over emphasis cost to the detriment of resource availability. Thus there is the need to have a fair balance between inventory cost and resource availability.
Cont D The major problems facing JIT in modern times is the issue of traffic. Either in the air, on land or on sea, it is increasingly becoming expensive and more difficult to sustain this practice. Nevertheless a JIT organisation is always lean, competitive and proactive compared to other organisations.
Practical Application Just In Time can be applied in the kitchen. For example you can plan the stock level of items in your deep freezer such it doesn t have so many things in there for the freezer to consume electricity. You may start with perishable items first, as soon as it is about to finish, restock and use the last batch before storing the new one.
Total Production Maintenance Total Productive Maintenance is an organisational maintenance culture or philosophy so that emphasise on keeping the current plant and its equipments at its highest productive level through cooperation of all areas of the organisation. The most important task for managers is break down the traditional barriers between maintenance and productive personnel.
The philosophy is to dedicate one day for the tuning up and general maintenance of equipment's. The dedicated day is not used for work but for maintenance, and this culture must be bought into as a collective culture. As the name TPM suggest; Total: All encompassing by maintenance and productive individuals working together. Productive: Production of goods and services that meets or exceeds customers expectations Maintenance: keeping equipment's and plant in as good as or better than the original condition at all times.
The overall goals of TPM are; Maintaining and improving equipment capacity Maintaining equipment for life Using support from all areas of the operation Encouraging input from all employees Using teams for continual improvements
Practical Application If the philosophy works for the organisation, it should equally work for the individual. As an individual you can dedicate one day to visit the hospital to check your health status, or take time out to work on your personal computer, example, scanning to remove viruses or arranging the files properly. As a student you can dedicate one day for your academic issues, you can learn how to calculate your GPA or go through your transcripts to check if you are on course to achieving the goals set. You can also dedicate a day to clean up your wardrobe or garages to get rid of unwanted items that have occupied space.
Quality Control This involves measurement of performances of processes, people and products. It involves comparing actual performance of process, products and people to standards to identify variation for correction. The steps involved are: Monitor the process for deviation Identify root cause of deviation Put in place corrective mechanisms for identified deviations Use the feedback to improve upon the process
Tools for Control Statistical process control- This technique helps to know the kind of variation in the organisation processes whether they are special cause or common cause variation. It explains whether the process is stable or unstable. To control this variation 7 tools will be considered called the 7 Quality tools: Cause and effect diagram/fishbone diagram/ishikawa diagram Check sheet Control chart Histogram Pareto Scatter plot Graphs and charts (Run charts) The seven Quality Control tools: provide organisations with the methods and statistical tools to achieve excellence.
Process Flowchart It is always useful to construct a process flow diagram for the activities that both services and products go through. A process flow diagram makes it easy to visualise the entire system, identify potential trouble spots and identify areas for improvement. Practical Application You can flow the process involved in your routine activities from home to work or school, this would help you identify the activities that makes it impossible for you to arrive at work/school early.
Example of Process Flowchart
Pareto Diagram The Pareto Principle was developed by Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) after he had conducted extensive studies into the distribution of wealth. He found that there were a few people with a lot of money and many people with little money. Later on, Joseph Juran coined the phrases Vital few and useful many. The principle has since been applied to a lot of disciplines including Total Quality Management. A theory maintaining that 80% of the output in a given situation or system is produced by 20% of the input Practical Application For example as students you need to identify the most important areas you need to focus on in order to solve many of the problems that confronts you. Getting bad grades would reduce your grade point average that may lead to dismissal for non performance. The later problems are the useful many that can be solved by paying attention to the vital few thus spending more time to study.
Frequency Percent Example of Pareto Chart A B C D E
Fish Bone Diagram (Cause and effect diagram) Prof. Kaoru Ishikawa developed this useful tool in 1943 to investigate either a bad effect and to take action to correct the causes or a good effect and to learn those causes that are responsible. The diagram looks like the bone of a fish. The head of the fish depicts the effect whiles the bones shows the possible causes which can be broken down to further causes. The fish bone diagram is used to investigate the root cause of a problem or root cause analysis of a problem. The causes are usually the resources that man manages, but they can be broken down into sub causes until the root cause is found. Practical Application You can use the fishbone diagram to look for the possible causes of any problem by brainstorming the possible causes to find the specific causes that is giving a particular effect.
Example of Fish Born Diagram
Check Sheet The check sheet is a simple but powerful tool used to collect data. The purpose of the check sheet is to ensure that data is collected accurately without leaving out the essential elements. The usage of the check sheet depends on the imagination of the one using it. The data can be quantitative or qualitative. This means there is no one way of designing a check sheet; it can be designed to suit any situation or purpose. When the information is quantitative, the check sheet is sometimes called a tally sheet. Using a check sheet is appropriate when the data can be observed and collected repeatedly by either the same person or the same location. It is also an effective tool when collecting data on frequency and identifying patterns of events, problems, defects, and defect location, and for identifying defect causes.
Example of Check Sheet
Histogram and Bar Charts The histogram describes the variations in the process and shows the frequencies of non conforming items. It graphically shows patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers. Practical Application You can use either a bar chart or a histogram to show frequencies of the items or activities that are contributing to defects or causing problems.
Example of Histogram and Bar
Check List This tool contains items are important or relevant to a specific situation. It is usually used under operational conditions to ensure that all the important steps or actions have been taken. The primary purpose is for guiding operations and not for collecting data. It is generally used to ensure that all aspects have been taken into accounts. Practical Application A personalised simple check sheet could be used to ensure that no important item that would be in a travelling luggage is left out. It can also be used to list all important shopping items so that none is left behind.
Examples of Check List
Control Chart Control charts are tools used to monitor process to check whether a particular process is in control or out of control. It enables the control of the distribution of variations rather than attempting to control each individual variation. The control chart also shows the capability of the process. It has an upper limit which indicates variations that are out of control, an optimum or desired limit where the process should stay and a lower limit which indicates the underutilisation of the capacity of the process.
Practical Application Cont d Your aim is to arrive to work or to school early. So you use an alarm that wakes you up early enough to prepare to work or school. Recently you notice that you have been arriving late to work or to school. You can use the control chart to monitor the processes involved in waking up and preparing and boarding a car to school. You would realise that the chart would give a clear picture of the processes and the kinds of variations involved, whether special or common cause variations.
Example of Control Chart
Scatter Plot This tool is used to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship existing between two variables. The scatter plot is also used to find the correlations between two variables. A line of best fit is then drawn through points that are line to determine relationships between two variables. Practical Application A company that manufactures lipsticks has been observing that the lipstick dries up immediately after production. The company can use the scatter plot to investigate the relationship between the lipstick dryness and temperature in the shop floor. Thus the level of dryness of the lipstick would depend on the temperature in the shop floor.
Example of Scatter Plot
Quality Improvement The systematic approach to reduction or elimination of waste, rework and losses in production process. It uses quantitative and qualitative methods to improve the effectiveness, efficiency, and safety of service delivery processes and systems, as well as the performance of Human Resource in delivering products and services. The fundamental concept underlying improvement is that a system left unchanged can only be expected to continue to produce the same results
Continues: To achieve better performance, one must change the system in ways that enable it to produce the improved result. In health care, improvement science emphasizes changes in health care service delivery processes and systems in ways that will enable the implementation of high-impact, evidence-based interventions to achieve better results. The approach also identifies unnecessary, redundant, or incorrect parts of processes and then changes them to yield streamlined and efficient care delivery.
Techniques for Quality Improvement Are: Benchmarking Kaizen Innovation Design thinking
Benchmarking Benchmarking is a systematic method by which organisations can measure themselves against the best practices in the industry. There is no need re-inventing the wheel as the saying goes. Benchmarking considers the experiences of others, learns from it and uses it.
Reasons to Benchmark It is a method to achieve competitive advantage It enhances creativity and innovation by constantly requiring scanning the external environment. It Prevents waste and reduces cost because experimentation is avoided It develops organisations strengths and reduces their weaknesses. It can inspire managers and their organisation to compete
Pitfalls of Benchmarking It is always the criticism that if you always copy others how do you innovate on your own to stay ahead of the competition It is not helpful if it is used for processes that don t offer much opportunity for improvement. It breaks down if process owners and managers feel threatened or do not accept the findings of the external environmental scan.
Practical Application As a good student, you have to sincerely and objectively know your strengths and weaknesses and look out for colleagues who are good in areas you have a weakness and learn from them whiles you work on your strengths too.
Kaizen Kaizen is a Japanese term meaning gradual improvement. It is both a quality assurance and improvement technique that focus on continual improvement of processes bit by bit to make it more efficient, effective and adaptable. The Kaizen philosophy defines management s role in continuously encouraging and implementing small improvements.
Continues It is the process of continuous improvement in small increments that make the process more efficient, effective, under control, and adaptable. Improvements are usually accomplished at little or no expense without sophisticated techniques or expensive equipment. It focuses on simplification by breaking down complex processes into their sub-processes and then improving them.
The Kaizen improvement focuses on the use of the following principles: 1. Value-added and non-value-added work activities 2. Muda which refers to seven sins/classes of waste: over production, delay/ waiting, transportation, overprocessing, inventory, wasted motion, and defects/rejects. 3. Principles of motion study. 4. Principles of materials handling. 5. Documentation of standard operating procedures.
Continues: 6. The 5 S s for workplace organization, which are five Japanese words that mean proper arrangement/ sort (Seiri), shine /orderliness(seiton), Standardize / conformity (seiketsu), straighten /clean up (seiso), and sustain (shitsuke). 7. Visual management by means of visual displays that everyone in the plant can use for better communications.
Continues 8. Just-in-time principles to produce only the units in the right quantities, at the right time, and with the right resources. 9. Poka-yoke to prevent detect errors. 10. Team dynamics, which include problem solving, communication skills, and conflict resolution.
Continues: Kaizen relies on a culture that encourages suggestions by operators who continually try to incrementally improve their job or process. An example of a Kaizen-type improvement would be the change in colour of a welding booth from black and white to improve operator visibility. This change results in a small improvement in weld quality and a substantial improvement in operator satisfaction. The PDSA cycle described earlier may be used to help implement Kaizen concepts.
Re-engineering According to Hammer and Champy, reengineering is the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve the dramatic improvements in critical measures of performance. Many practitioners believe that TQM is associated with only incremental improvements. Nothing could be further from the truth-for many years the Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award has defined continuous improvement as referring to both incremental and breakthrough improvement.
Innovation the act of innovating; introduction of new things or methods
Design Thinking Design thinking is a formal method for practical, creative resolution of problems and creation of solutions, with the intent of an improved future result. In this regard it is a form of solution-based, or solution-focused thinking; starting with a goal (a better future situation) instead of solving a specific problem. By considering both present and future conditions and parameters of the problem, alternative solutions may be explored simultaneously
Quality Improvement and the Role of Employees A key element of TQM is employee involvement and participative problemsolving. Many types of teams and methods for employee involvement exist, but two important quality- related participation tools are:
Quality Circles small voluntary group of employees (8-10) and their supervisor(s) from the same department that meet once a week to solve problems. The supervisor acts as a moderator, encouraging others to speak. Quality circles have generally been more successful in Japan than in the United States.
Employee Suggestion Systems a structured approach for receiving suggestions for quality improvements from trained employees. It includes a commitment from management and a reward structure
Other types of team arrangements include self-managed work teams, cross-functional teams and project teams. Self-managed work teams are permanent teams designed to give workers maximum responsibility and accountability for completing their daily work. Cross-functional teams are semi-permanent teams designed to enhance interdepartmental communication. Project teams are temporary teams designed to solve specific problems. Teams are critical for effective TQM since good quality demands innovation and problem-solving from all members of the organization
REFERENCES Evans, J.R. & Lindsey, W.M. (2002). The Management and Control of Quality (5 th Ed.). South-Western College Publishing: USA. Evans, J.R. & Lindsey, W.M. (1999). The Management and Control of Quality (4 th Ed.). South-Western College Publishing: USA Alabi, G. B. (2013). Technology in Quality Management, Lecture note. Accra: UPSA Chuck, W. (2009). Management (5 th Ed.). South-Western Cengage Learning: USA Pegels, C.C. (1995). Total Quality Management, a Survey of its Important Aspects. Boyd & Fraser publishing company: Danvers, Massachusetts
QUESTIONS & CONTRIBUTIONS
William A. Foster Quality is never an accident; it is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, intelligent direction and skilful execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives.
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