SOCIO-ECONOMIC WOMEN WORKERS IN SELECTED FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES INCLUDING SEA FOOD AND MARINE PRODUCTS (2008)

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF WOMEN WORKERS IN SELECTED FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES INCLUDING SEA FOOD AND MARINE CONDITIONS PRODUCTS OF (2008) SOCIO-ECONOMIC WOMEN WORKERS IN SELECTED FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES INCLUDING SEA FOOD AND MARINE PRODUCTS (2008) GOVERNMENT OF INDIA MINISTRY OF LABOUR & EMPLOYMENT LABOUR BUREAU SHIMLA/CHANDIGARH

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF WOMEN WORKERS IN SELECTED FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES INCLUDING SEA FOOD AND MARINE PRODUCTS (2008) GOVERNMENT OF INDIA MINISTRY OF LABOUR & EMPLOYMENT LABOUR BUREAU SHIMLA/CHANDIGARH

PREFACE The principle of Gender Equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to Women, but also empowers the state to adopt measures of affirmative action in their favour. In pursuance of this policy, a number of legislative measures have been taken for the protection of women. Labour laws applicable to the industrial units have special provisions for women workers which entail some degree of protection with regard to wages, working conditions, welfare, etc. The Scheme titled Survey of Socio-Economic Conditions of Women Workers in Industry was taken up as a part of the research programme of the Labour Bureau to study the working and other conditions of women workers employed in the organized sector of industries viz., Mines, Plantations and Factories covered under the respective legislative enactments. Keeping in view the utility of the data so generated, the scheme was extended to the Un-organized sector of industries as well. Building and Construction industry was the beginning in this regard, followed by Handloom, Khadi, Beedi, Readymade Garments, Agarbathi, Lime manufacturing and Cashewnut Processing industry. The present Report relates to the Food Processing industries including Sea Food and Marine Products. I express my sincere thanks for whole hearted support and cooperation rendered by State Labour Departments in the conduct of the survey. I also extend my thanks to all the employers and workers of the sample units who willingly and sincerely furnished the detailed information for the study. The primary draft of this Report was prepared under the supervision of Mrs. Sunita Sanghi, Director and finalised in the present form by Shri Yash Pal, Director with the assistance of Shri Deepak Mehra, Deputy Director. The names of officers/officials, who have toiled through various stages of the preparation of this report, have been given at the end of Report. While acknowledging their efforts, I record my appreciation of the work done by them. Thanks are also due to the Printing Unit of the Bureau. The views expressed in this report are not necessarily those of the Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India. CHANDIGARH A. S. AHLUWALIA Dated:28-02-2008 DIRECTOR GENERAL

CONTENTS Page No. CHAPTER I SCOPE AND METHOD OF STUDY 1-6 1.1 Genesis 1 1.2 Scope, Objective and Coverage 5 1.3 Questionnaires and Reference Period 6 CHAPTER II RESEARCH DESIGN 7-10 2.1 Methodology and Sample Design 7 2.2 Period of Survey 8 Tables 2.1 2.2 9-10 CHAPTER III CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN S 11-25 EMPLOYMENT 3.1 Introduction 11 3.2 Employment 11 3.3 Occupational Characteristics 12 3.4 Age and Marital Status 13 3.5 Length of Service and Training 14 Graphs 15 Tables 3.1 3.9 16-25 CHAPTER IV WAGES AND EARNINGS 26-40 4.1 General 26 4.2 System of Wage Payment 26 4.3 Periodicity of Wage Payment 26 4.4 Wage Rates and Earnings 27 4.5 Earnings by Mode of Payment 28 4.6 Mandays Worked and Paid for 29 4.7 Bonus and Other Allowances 29 Tables 4.1 4.7 30-40 CHAPTER V WORKING CONDITIONS 41-45 5.1 General 41 5.2 Shifts and Normal Hours of Work 41 5.3 Leave and Holidays 41 Tables 5.1 5.3 43-45 i

CHAPTER VI WELFARE FACILITIES AND SOCIAL 46-51 SECURITY 6.1 General 46 6.2 Welfare Amenities 46 6.3 Social Security 47 6.4 Maternity Benefits 48 Tables 6.1 6.3 49-51 CHAPTER VII INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND RECORDS 52-54 OF MANAGEMENT 7.1 Trade Unions 52 7.2 Maintenance of Records 52 Tables 7.1 7.2 53-54 CHAPTER VIII SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 55-71 8.1 Introduction 55 8.2 Literacy Level 55 8.3 Migration and Relinquish of Earlier Job 57 8.4 Household Size, Earners and Average Household Income 57 8.5 Indebtedness 58 8.6 Type of Dwellings 58 8.7 Harassment, Discrimination, Economic Independence and 59 Consumption of Intoxicants Tables 8.1 8.12 60-71 CHAPTER IX MAJOR OBSERVATIONS AND FINDINGS 72-77 ANNEXURE I LIST OF WOMEN SURVEYS 78 ANNEXURE II UNIT LEVEL QUESTIONNAIRE 79-107 ANNEXURE III WORKER LEVEL QUESTIONNAIRE 108-124 ANNEXURE IV LIST OF OFFICERS/OFFICIALS 125 ASSOCIATED. ii

CHAPTER I SCOPE AND METHOD OF STUDY 1.1 GENESIS 1.1.1 Women as an independent group constitute about 48% of the country s total population as per the 2001 census. The principles of Gender equality and protection of the privileges and rights of women are enshrined in the Constitution of India such as in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Fundamental duties as well as Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants equality to women at par with men, it also advocates positive discrimination in favour of women. Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, plans and programmes have aimed at women s advancement in different spheres. Over the years the focus on women has witnessed a gradual shift from purely welfare oriented schemes and development programmes to their empowerment by recognizing them as equal partners on the road to progress. Women labour comprises a section of the working population who are exposed to exploitation. The majority of the women labour work in the unorganized sector for low wages and at low level of skills. The major problems faced by women workers are lack of organization, non-payment of wages and or equal wages, economic & sexual exploitation of women workers, absence of support services in most sectors, maternity benefits, child care services etc. The Scheme Socio- Economic Condition of Women Workers in Industry was taken up in the year 1975 as a part of the research programme of Labour Bureau. The main objective of these surveys is to collect Socio- Economic data on women workers with a view to study the problems faced by them in their working and living environment, welfare amenities available to them vis-à-vis the labour welfare laws, demographic characteristics and economic conditions of households of women workers. The importance of this survey is for formulation of policies that seek to remove the handicaps under which women work, to improve their wages, working and living conditions, to strengthen their bargaining position to provide them welfare -1-

amenities, to enhance their skills and employbility and create new avenues of employment opportunities for them. 1.1.2 The first enquiry for studying economic and social conditions of women workers was undertaken by the Labour Bureau in 1953 and a report entitled the Economic and Social Status of Women Workers in India was brought out. The enquiry was conducted by mail questionnaire method and was confined to important industries in the country employing women in large numbers, viz., Cotton and Jute Textiles, Coal Mines and Plantations. Later on in 1958, the Labour Bureau and the Planning Commission, jointly prepared a study titled, Women in Employment-1901-1956. Thereafter, the Labour Bureau brought out a few reports on the basis of certain available published/unpublished data. One such report titled, Women in Employment brought out in 1964 and another publication Women in Industry brought out in the International Women s Year (1975) present an objective assessment of the trend of women s employment, their wages and earnings and of the laws and regulations governing their employment and working conditions. The other studies done by Labour Bureau over the years are enclosed in Annexure-I. The present study was taken up for collecting socio-economic data on women workers employed in Food Processing Industry including Sea Food and Marine Products with a view to studying the problems faced by them in their working and living conditions. 1.1.3 The Food Processing Industry Sector in India is one of the largest in terms of production, consumption, export and growth prospects. Important sub-sectors in food processing industries are:- Fruits & Vegetables Processing, Fish Processing, Milk Processing, Meat and Poultry Processing, Packaged/ Convenience Foods, Alcoholic Beverages and Soft Drinks and Grain Processing etc. India is ranked 2 nd largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world but hardly 2% of the produce is processed whereas Brazil is processing 80% of their fruits and vegetables. Committed to Golden Revolution, National Horticulture Board has formulated broad based entrepreneur driven schemes to facilitate integrated development of the horticulture sector. The present compendium of schemes by N.H.B. is a set of interventions to achieve high quality commercial production, create post harvest infrastructure and cold chain facilities through back ended capital investment subsidy. Among various foods processing sectors of the world aquaculture has been recognized as the fastest growing in recent times. It has grown at an average rate of 9 percent per annum in the past decade. Post liberalization India s sea food export has seen a steady growth. However, international trade issues have had an effect and export had fallen during 2003-2004, Rs. 14124 crores as compared -2-

to Rs. 13828 crores in 2002-03 and Rs. 10169 crores in 2001-02 befor picking up in 2004-2005. From time immemorial, Coastal shrimp/scampi culture is an important component of aquaculture in India and we cherish a long history of traditional brackish water farming in some of the coastal states. However, the development and progress of this sector on scientific lines has taken place only during the past two decades. Coastal shrimp farming is contributing substantially to the rural economy of the country besides earning valuable foreign exchange. East Coast States are leading in aquaculture production with Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Orrisa which are contributing significantly as against the West Coast. Kerala is leading in aquaculture, while there is tremendous potential for development in other states like Gujarat and Maharastra. 1.1.4 History and Potential for Production and Employment Food processing involves value addition to quality food products like livestock, marine, vegetables, fruits, agricultural products, seasonings, sugar, cereals and flour, bread and cake, animal and vegetable fat, other food products, soft drinks, alcohol, tea and coffee and ice under hygienic controlled conditions which enhances the shelf life of products without losing their nutritional value. The Som Ras in ancient India and Bread and Beer have their origin in 3000 to 5000 B. C. in Babylon and Egypt. But Germany introduced modern machines and technology. During the last 30 years raw material treatment, processing technology, cleaning facilities, storage, sterilization and conservation treatment, processing, logistics, effluents and waste treatment have undergone rapid changes. In India, only 2 per cent of total food products available were being processed at the end of the 9 th Plan (2001-02). The target at the end of 10 th Plan i.e. 2006-07 was to increase it to 10 percent. In the case of Fruits and Vegetables and Marine products, actual achievement and targets for production and exports are given as under: Physical Performance of FPI Production and Exports Sub-Sector Unit Actual Achievement Target Sl. No. 2001-02 2006-07 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Production (1) Fruits & Vegetables (2) Fish Products Lakh Tonnes Million Tonnes 10.50 6.29 Exports (1) Fruits & Vegetables (2) Fish Products Rs. Crores Rs. Crores Source: Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07) Vol. II, p-738. 1265 5800 14.00 7.00 2050 8350-3-

The employment potential of the industry was estimated by NCAER at the instance of MOFPI. In the year 2001-02, it was estimated that 7.85 million persons were directly employed. It was expected to grow at 2.61 per cent per annum, presuming that GDP growth rate will be 8% per annum during the 10 th Plan and will reach at 8.6 million persons in 2006-07. It was also estimated that indirect employment generation in FPI is 2.38 times the direct employment. Logic Model of FPI and Employment Generation Logic Model Logic Model of FPI Employment Generation Framework Impact Outcome Improvement in living standard, nutritional level, changes in food habits. Employment Generation. Reduction in wastage & losses. Society at large (Consumers and Producers) is benefited with increase in employment level and decrease in unemployment. Farm level Floor level Supervisors Quality Manager Production Manager Operation Manager Transporters & Distributors Scientists & Engineers Technicians, Analyst, Traders and Regulators Enforcement Machinery Certification & Accreditation Machinery Output Products Storage and warehousing Logistics Advertisement and Promotion Distribution Supply chains Consumer Awareness Activities Process Processing design and Technology Internal environment controls Safety Assurance Sanitation and Hygiene Maintaince of Standards (HACCP, CODEX, ISO-9001, ISO-22000) Testing Labeling Packaging Input Food Products Farm level Operations Raw material treatment Testing quality -4 -

Keeping in view the employment potential and traditional association of women with this industry, it was necessary to conduct survey in the industry to find out the extent of employment of women at different skill levels in different occupations, their wages and earnings, working conditions, welfare facilities and social security, their collective bargaining power and awareness of labour laws and their socio-economic conditions. 1.2 SCOPE, OBJECTIVE AND COVERAGE 1.2.1 The present scheme involved the conduct of studies on women workers employed in Food Processing Industry including Sea Food and Marine Products factories covered under the Factories Act, 1948. The entire work under the scheme was planned to be taken up in two phases. In the first phase data was collected from the states of Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal and in Second Phase data from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu was collected. The present report analyses the results of the study conducted in following selected Food Processing Industries based on NIC 1987. 1. Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables (Industry code 202). 2. Processing, Canning and Preservation of fish, etc. (Industry code 203). 3. Production of Common salt (Industry code 208). 4. Manufacture of Cocoa Products, Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) (Industry code 209). 5. Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc (Industry code 219). 1.2.2 OBJECTIVE The Ministry of Labour has enacted various labour laws applicable to women labour like the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 and other acts for the betterment of women labours in the country. These acts provide - To take care of the health & safety aspect of the women workers. - Women cannot be employed in hazardous processes in factories - Separate provision for washing places, latrines & urinals have to be provided to women workers - Special provisions for women in respect of child care, maternity benefit, working hours & their representation on welfare boards etc. -5-

The objective of the present study has been to bring into focus the various working and living conditions, social and economic aspects of life of women workers, such as wages, income, family size, literacy level, housing etc. 1.3 QUESTIONNAIRES AND REFERENCE PERIOD 1.3.1 For the purpose of the study two types of questionnaires/schedules were designed, namely Unit level Questionnaire and Worker level Questionnaire (Annexure-II and III). 1.3.2 In the unit level questionnaires the data on employment, recruitment, employment status, wage rates and earnings, labour welfare and social security, trade unionism, etc., which necessitated sex-wise comparative study was collected separately for men and women whereas information relating to age, marital status, length of service, working conditions, welfare amenities, etc., was collected only for women workers. 1.3.3 The worker level questionnaire was canvassed only for sample women workers selected in each sample factory and the information regarding demographic particulars, living conditions, household earnings, indebtedness and housing conditions, etc. was collected from the concerned sample women workers. 1.3.4 Date of visit to the unit by Field Officer was taken as reference date for the collection of data on employment, employment status and length of service, age and marital status of women workers, working conditions and welfare amenities, trade unionism etc. However, data relating to wage rates and earnings were collected for one complete pay period immediately preceding the date of visit; employment data related to one complete month immediately preceding the date of visit were also collected. ***** -6-

CHAPTER- II RESEARCH DESIGN 2.1 METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLE DESIGN. 2.1.1 In the preliminary stages the state authorities, namely, Chief Inspector of Factories, Labour Commissioners and Directorate of Industries were requested to supply the list of active Food Processing Industries units including Sea Food and Marine Products. From some states list of units were collected by personal visits by the officers/officials of Labour Bureau. A comprehensive list of 2012 units was prepared which constituted the frame. 2.1.2 A total of 315 units, approximately 15% of the frame was taken as sample size. This total sample size was distributed proportionately in each industry as per its share of units in the frame. State wise allocation in each industry was done proportionately with at least one unit from all the states reporting active units in that industry. 2.1.3 Since the aim of the study was to ascertain socio-economic conditions of the women workers employed in these units, units/managements were contacted and data relating to employment of women workers, description of occupations employing women workers and other welfare aspects of women workers as provided under various labour laws was collected. Women workers were interviewed as per the size of women employment decided as under: Sl. No. Size class of women employment in the units No. of women workers interviewed 1 2 3 1. Size class I (Women Employment 1-4) 100% 2. Size class II (Women Employment 5-9) 50% 3. Size class III (Women Employment 10-49) 25% subject to minimum 5 workers 4. Size class IV (Women Employment 50 and above) 10% subject to a minimum of 10 and maximum of 20 workers -7-

2.1.4 Frame and sample size for the survey have been depicted in Table 2.1. However, industry and state wise distribution of units covered is given in Table 2.2. 2.2 PERIOD OF SURVEY 2.2.1 The field work for the study was undertaken in two phases. Duration of 1 st and 2 nd phase was from 22.11.2005 to 11.01.2006 and 13.02.2006 to 11.05.2006 respectively. ***** -8-

Table 2.1 Sampling Frame & Sample Size Sl. No. Industries Covered No. of factories in the Frame Frame Total women Employmen t No. of factories covered Sample Size Total women Employmen t No. of Women workers covered 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 354 5376 62 635 230 2 3 4 5 Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. Production of Common Salt Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 282 13681 44 1794 334 195 2821 29 390 135 152 1895 25 270 112 1029 20434 155 1711 626 Total 2012 44207 315 4800 1437-9-

Table 2.2 State-Wise Distribution of Factories Covered Sl. No. Industries Covered Andhra Pradesh Delhi Goa Gujarat Number of Factories Covered in the states Haryana Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal All India 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 1 1 1 1 5 2 3 18 3 5 2 1 3 15 1 62 10 2 Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. 4-1 5 - - 4 24-1 - - 4-1 44 3 Production of Common Salt 1 - - 10 - - 1 - - - - 3 14 - - 29 4 Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) 1-1 1-1 5 5 4 3 1 1-1 1 25 5 Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 20 2 1 4 2 1 2 44 2 10-1 58 7 1 155 Total 27 3 4 21 7 4 15 91 9 19 3 6 79 23 4 315

CHAPTER III CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN S EMPLOYMENT 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.1.1 The Food Processing Industry Sector in India is one of the largest in terms of production, consumption, export and export growth. India is ranked as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, it was expected that women employment in these industries may be substantial. To know the extent and pattern of women employment in manual and non-manual jobs and various other facts like share of women employment in total employment of industries covered, employment status of women and mode of their recruitment, level of skill, marital status, training for their expertise and length of service, etc., data were collected from the sample units. 3.2 EMPLOYMENT 3.2.1 The Survey results at All India level reveal that only 14.6% of women workers are engaged in Non-manual work. The maximum non-manual workers have been reported in Malted food, Grinding & Processing of spices, papads (35.4%) followed by processing, canning (30.3%), canning & preservation (16.3%), manufacture of cocoa products (13.2%) & production of common salt (4.8%). In the manual jobs, the women employment in all the industries covered was substantial except in manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (except Sweet Meat) industry. The women employment at All India level is 45.5% in manual jobs. However, maximum employment of women workers (57.4%) was found in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish, etc., and the minimum employment (17.8%) in Manufacturing of Cocoa Products Confectionery (except Sweet Meat). State-wise women employment in the industries covered may be seen in Table 3.1. -11-

3.2.2 Table 3.2 depicts the percentage of women employment to total employment in the industries covered. At All India level it shows that 41% women are employed in these industries. The highest percentage of women employment was found in Processing, Canning & Preservation of Fish (51.2%) followed by Canning & Preservation of Fruits & Vegetables (42.4%), Malted Food (41.6%), Production of Common Salt (40.5%) & Manufacture of Cocoa Products (16.5%). In canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, the highest percentage of women employment (83.3%) was found in Andhra Pradesh and the lowest (13.9%) in Haryana. In Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish, etc., the highest percentage of women employment (65.22%) was found in West Bengal and the lowest (37%) in Goa. In Production of Common Salt industry, the highest women employment (43.7%) was in Karnataka and the lowest (29.3%) in Rajasthan. In Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat), the highest percentage of women employment (72.7%) was found in Gujarat State and the lowest employment (0.6%) in Himachal Pradesh. In Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products, the highest percentage of women employment (72.7%) in Rajasthan and the lowest employment (3.4%) in Goa. The results reveal that in 5 coastal states the percentage of women employment to total employment have exceeded the All India percentage of 41%. In Kerala (57.5%), Karnataka (48.8%), Gujarat (45.8%), Andhra Pradesh (45.6%) and in Tamil Nadu (45.2%) women workers are employed in these industries. 3.2 OCCUPATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 3.3.1 The data on the employment status like permanent, temporary, casual, contract etc, as on the date of survey is presented in Table 3.3. At All India level 48.5%, 22.4%, 21.7% and 7.5% women workers were permanent, temporary, contract & casual/ others respectively. The percentage of permanent women workers in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) was very high as compared to other industries covered. The lowest percentage of permanent women workers was found in Production of Common Salt. 3.3.2 It may be seen from Table 3.4 that the proportion of directly employed women workers was highest (95.21%) in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) industry followed by Canning and Preservation of Fruit and Vegetable industry (93.2%), Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products, etc., (87%), Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc., (57.5%) and the lowest in Production of Common Salt industry (42.3%). At All India level 73.4%, 20.5% & -12-

6.1% females are employed directly, through contractors & others mode respectively. 3.3.3 The data thrown by the survey presented in Table 3.5 reveals that only 5.5% women workers are skilled, 31.3% are semi-skilled and 63.3% are unskilled while the male counterparts are 31.2% skilled, 25.1% semi-skilled and 43.7% unskilled. In the Production of Common Salt industry, women were found employed only in the unskilled jobs. None of them was working in skilled or semi skill jobs. The highest percentage of women workers (52.9%) was found in semi skilled categories in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish, etc., followed by Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papad, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products, etc., (25.6%), Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) 24.7% and Canning and Preservation Fruits and Vegetables (7.4%). 3.4 AGE AND MARITAL STATUS 3.4.1 The information relating to age and marital status was collected from the sample units in the Food Processing industry including Sea Food and Marine Products during the course of survey has been presented in Table 3.6 and 3.7 respectively. The survey results reveal that out of the total 4548 manual women workers found working in the sample units the highest proportion (55%) was in the age group of 18-24 in the Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish Industry, followed by age group 25-39 in the Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables (51.6%), Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Pappads, Appalams, Sago and sago Products, etc., (50.7%), Production of Common Salt (48.8%) and 40.6% in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat). At All India level, nearly 77% of manual women workers were in the age group of 18-39 years. The employment of adolescents was found negligible. However, no child labour was found working in any industry covered during the survey. 3.4.2 The survey results reveal that highest proportion of women who never married (73.3%) was in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish, etc., whereas as regard to proportion of married women, the highest (84.3%) was found in Production of Common Salt followed by Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables (71.6%), Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Pappads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products, etc., (69.1%) and the lowest (60.6%) was in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat). However, the employment of widow separated and divorcees were only marginal as shown in Table 3.7. -13-

3.5 LENGTH OF SERVICE AND TRAINING 3.5.1 The data on the duration of the workers with their present employer in the sample units at the time of the survey was collected from the records of the units and where the information about length of service of workers was not available in the records of the employers, it was collected through the personal enquiries from the managements and the workers concerned by probing the factual position. The information so collected is presented in the Table 3.8 which reveals that 4548 manual woman workers were found working in 315 sample units. The highest proportion of women workers with 2 years and above was reported in Manufacture of Cocoa Products (74.9%) followed by Malted Food (67%), Canning and Preservation of Fruits (60.3%), Production of Common Salt (43.4%) and Processing, Canning & Preservation of Fish (38.6%). Similarly the highest proportion of women workers with less than 6 months service was found in Production of Common Salt industry (48%). 3.5.2 The sample units reporting training to their workers have been presented in Table 3.9. The maximum number of units were surveyed in Malted Food, Grinding and Processing (155 units), only 1.9% workers (newly joined & on the job) were found having imparted training. At All India level nearly 7% each newly joined and on the job workers were trained. The substantial proportion of units of Processing Canning and Preservation of Fish etc., reported training to their workers whereas not even a single unit of Production of Common Salt found imparting training to their workers. None reporting of training to workers may be due to the fact that in Production of Common Salt no much skill is required. -14-

Distribution of Manual Vs Non-manual All India 14.6 85.4 Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, etc. 14.7 85.3 Industry Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery Production of Common Salt 8.5 13.8 86.2 91.5 Preservation of Fish 14.7 85.3 Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 18.5 81.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 in percentage Non-Manual workers Manual Workers Distribution of Manual Vs Non-Manual Women Workers All Industry 5.3 94.8 Malted Food etc 6.7 93.3 Manufacture of Cocoa Products etc 7.0 93.0 Production of Common Salt 1.8 98.2 Preservation of Fish 4.6 95.4 Fruits and Vegetables 4.7 95.3 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 Non-Manual Women Workers Manual Women Workers -15-

Table3.1 Distribution of Non- Manual & Manual Workers by Industry 1 2 3 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. Production of Common Salt Andhra Pradesh 1-1 10 2 10 Delhi 3-44 8 47 8 Goa 2-4 6 6 6 Gujarat 5-2 4 7 4 Haryana 97 6 170 37 267 43 Himachal Pradesh 30 3 64 33 94 36 Karnataka 8 1 15 64 23 65 Kerala 34 16 62 296 96 312 Madhya Pradesh 16-33 41 49 41 Maharashtra 29 1 127 32 156 33 Punjab 3-13 11 16 11 Rajasthan - - 6 1 6 1 Tamil Nadu 9 2 19 13 28 15 Uttar Pradesh 4-49 43 53 43 West Bengal 7 1 7 6 14 7 Total 248 30 616 605 864 635 % Share in Total workers 16.5 2.0 41.1 40.4 57.6 42.4 Andhra Pradesh 26 2 43 67 69 69 Goa 7 3 27 17 34 20 Gujarat 64 3 222 293 286 296 Karnataka 22 1 162 160 184 161 Kerala 259 68 661 885 920 953 Maharashtra 5-39 42 44 42 Tamil Nadu 52 5 112 233 164 238 West Bengal 1-7 15 8 15 Total 436 82 1273 1712 1709 1794 % Share in Total workers 12.4 2.3 36.3 48.9 48.8 51.2 Andhra Pradesh - - 6 3 6 3 Gujarat 24 1 206 158 230 159 Karnataka 3-55 45 58 45 Rajasthan 3-38 17 41 17 Tamil Nadu 45 6 194 160 239 166 Total 75 7 499 383 574 390 % Share in Total workers 7.8 0.7 51.8 39.7 59.5 40.5 Category of Workers Sl. Name of Non- Mannual Total Name of State No. Industry Mannual Workers M F M F M F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-16-

5 Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. Andhra Pradesh 40-201 184 241 184 Delhi 31-23 2 54 2 Goa 19 3 294 8 313 11 Gujarat 27 1 51 43 78 44 Haryana 24 4 118 22 142 26 Himachal Pradesh - - 8 7 8 7 Karnataka 12 1 36 25 48 26 Kerala 132 84 192 561 324 645 Madhya Pradesh 18-11 18 29 18 Maharashtra 29 4 104 96 133 100 Rajasthan 2 1 4 15 6 16 Tamil Nadu 107 11 567 481 674 492 Uttar Pradesh 46 5 297 132 343 137 West Bengal 3-6 3 9 3 Total 490 114 1912 1597 2402 1711 % Share in Total workers 11.9 2.8 46.5 38.8 58.4 41.6 All India (Total workers) 1455 252 5460 4548 6915 4800 % Share in Total workers 12.4 2.2 46.6 38.8 59.0 41.0 Category of Workers Sl. Name of Name of State Non- Mannual Total No. Industry Mannual Workers M F M F M F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Andhra Pradesh 1-10 10 11 10 Goa 22 3 457 11 479 14 Gujarat - - 3 8 3 8 Himachal Pradesh 38-278 2 316 2 Manufacture of Karnataka 8 3 34 38 42 41 Cocoa Kerala 65 8 65 71 130 79 4 Products Madhya Pradesh 6-66 18 72 18 Confectionery Maharashtra 5 5 12 20 17 25 Meat) Rajasthan - - 10 9 10 9 (Except Sweet Punjab 47-158 32 205 32 Uttar Pradesh - - 6 3 6 3 West Bengal 14-61 29 75 29 Total 206 19 1160 251 1366 270 % Share in Total workers 12.6 1.2 70.9 15.3 83.5 16.5-17-

-18- Table 3.2 Women Workers Employed in Sampled Units Sl. N o. Industries Covered Employment Andhra Pradesh Delhi Goa Gujarat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 a) Total Employment 12 55 12 11 310 130 88 408 90 189 27 7 43 96 21 1,499 b) Women Employment 10 8 6 4 43 36 65 312 41 33 11 1 15 43 7 635 1 2 3 4 5 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. Production of Common Salt Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. All India c) % Share of Womens in total employment Haryana PradeshHimachal Karnataka Kerala 83.3 14.5 50.0 36.4 13.9 27.7 73.9 76.5 45.6 17.5 40.7 14.3 34.9 44.8 33.3 42.4 a) Total Employment 138-54 582 - - 345 1,873-86 - - 402-23 3,503 b) Women Employment 69-20 296 - - 161 953-42 - - 238-15 1,794 c) % Share of Womens in total employment 50.0-37.0 50.9 - - 46.7 50.9-48.8 - - 59.2-65.2 51.2 a) Total Employment 9 - - 389 - - 103 - - - - 58 405 - - 964 b) Women Employment 3 - - 159 - - 45 - - - - 17 166 - - 390 c) % Share of Womens in total employment 33.3 - - 40.9 - - 43.7 - - - - 29.3 41.0 - - 40.5 a) Total Employment 21-493 11-318 83 209 90 42 237 19-9 104 1,636 b) Women Employment 10-14 8-2 41 79 18 25 32 9-3 29 270 c) % Share of Womens in total employment 47.6-2.8 72.7-0.6 49.4 37.8 20.0 59.5 13.5 47.4-33.3 27.9 16.5 a) Total Employment 425 56 324 122 168 15 74 969 47 233-22 1,166 480 12 4,113 b) Women Employment 184 2 11 44 26 7 26 645 18 100-16 492 137 3 1,711 c) % Share of Womens in total employment 43.3 3.6 3.4 36.1 15.5 46.7 35.1 66.6 38.3 42.9-72.7 42.2 28.5 25.0 41.6 a) Total Employment 605 111 883 1,115 478 463 693 3,459 227 550 264 106 2,016 585 160 11,715 b) Women Employment 276 10 51 511 69 45 338 1,989 77 200 43 43 911 183 54 4,800 c) % Share of Womens in total employment 45.6 9.0 5.8 45.8 14.4 9.7 48.8 57.5 33.9 36.4 16.3 40.6 45.2 31.3 33.8 41.0 Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Total

Table 3.3 Percentage Distribution of Workers by Employment status Sl. No. Name of Industry Percentage of Workers by Employment Status Permanent Temporary Contract Casual / Others M F M F M F M F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. Production of Common Salt Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 83.8 57.4 7.3 27.3 4.2 6.0 4.7 9.4 63.6 40.7 19.2 15.5 17.1 43.8 - - 48.3 28.5 13.8 11.7 31.1 35.0 6.8 24.8 72.2 69.7 15.7 25.5 10.4 4.8 1.7-52.0 55.0 24.5 29.9 8.4 3.4 15.1 11.8 All India 62.3 48.5 18.5 22.4 12.5 21.7 6.8 7.5-19-

-20- Table 3.4 Percentage of Manual Workers in sample units by payment mode and recruitment Sl. No. Name of Industry Number of Workers Percentage of workers by mode of payment Percentage of workers by Mode of Recruitment M F Time Rated Piece Rated Directly Employed Through Contractor Others M F M F M F M F M F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 5 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. Production of Common Salt Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 616 605 99.7 96.0 0.3 4.0 95.5 93.2 4.2 3.6 0.3 3.1 1,273 1,712 100.0 98.1-1.9 88.1 57.5 11.9 42.5 - - 499 383 83.8 79.4 16.2 20.6 63.5 42.3 28.3 31.9 8.2 25.8 1,160 251 100.0 98.0-2.0 87.9 95.2 12.1 4.8 - - 1,912 1,597 99.4 94.1 0.6 5.9 77.1 87.0 8.4 3.1 14.5 10.0 All India 5,460 4,548 98.3 94.8 1.7 5.2 82.8 73.4 11.4 20.5 5.9 6.1

Table 3.5 Distribution of Workers by Occupational Skill Sl. No. Name of Industry Number of Workers by Occupational Skill in (%age) Skilled Semi-Skilled Unskilled M F M F M F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 30.2 7.6 14.8 7.4 55.0 85.0 2 Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. 42.7 10.2 26.6 52.9 30.8 37.0 3 Production of Common Salt 16.2-19.2-64.5 100.0 4 5 Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 48.8 4.0 19.8 24.7 31.4 71.3 17.3 1.1 32.1 25.6 50.7 73.3 All India 31.2 5.5 25.1 31.3 43.7 63.3-21-

Table 3.6 Percentage of Manual Women Workers in the Sample Factories by Age Groups Sl. No. Name of Industry Total number of manual woman workers in the sample factories Percentage of manual women workers by age groups (in complete years) up to 14 years 15-18 18-24 25-39 40-54 55 years and above 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 605-0.3 15.7 51.6 24.5 7.9 2 Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. 1712-0.1 55.0 38.6 6.3 0.1 3 Production of Common Salt 383-1.1 17.2 48.8 29.5 3.4 4 5 Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 251-2.4 20.3 40.6 34.3 2.4 1597-0.3 18.0 50.7 28.3 2.6 All India 4548-0.4 31.7 45.6 19.9 2.4-22-

Table 3.7 Percentage of Manual Women Workers in the sample factories by Marital Status Total Percentage of manual women workers by number of marital status Sl. manual Name of No women Industry Widowed,. workers in Never Married Separated, the sample Married Divorced factories 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 605 21.0 71.6 7.4 2 3 4 5 Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. Production of Common Salt Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 1712 73.3 24.4 2.3 383 9.4 84.3 6.3 251 31.5 60.6 8.0 1597 22.5 69.1 8.4 All India 4548 40.8 53.4 5.8-23-

Table 3.8 Percentage of Manual women Workers by Length of service Sl. No. Name of Industry Total No. of Manual Women Workers Percentage of Manual women Workers by Length of Service Less than 6 Months Six Months but less than one year One year but less than two years Two years but less than five years Five years but less than ten years Ten years and above 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 605 19.3 8.6 11.7 14.0 18.7 27.6 2 3 4 5 Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. Production of Common Salt Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 1712 33.4 12.5 15.5 27.2 7.5 3.9 383 48.0 2.1 6.5 20.9 3.7 18.8 251 9.6 5.6 10.0 21.9 23.1 29.9 1597 7.5 9.3 16.3 34.3 21.9 10.8 All India 4548 22.4 9.6 14.2 27.1 14.6 12.2-24-

Table 3.9 Percentage of Factories reporting Training Sl. Name of Industry Number of No. Units Percentage of Factories reporting training For Newly Joined On the Job 1 2 3 4 5 1 Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables 62 9.7 9.7 2 Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc. 44 22.7 20.5 3 4 5 Production of Common Salt Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products etc. 29 - - 25 12.0 12.0 155 1.9 1.9 All India 315 7.0 6.7-25-

CHAPTER IV WAGES AND EARNINGS 4.1 GENERAL 4.1.1 The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 provides for the payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers and for the prevention of discrimination, on the ground of sex against women in the matter of employment and for matters connected therewith. Women labour comprises a section of the working population who are more exposed to exploitation. Therefore, the availability of information on wages and earnings of women workers is an important parameter to assess their wage level and it serves as an indicator of the economic prosperity of women s population. Wage Rate has been defined as the sum of basic wage and dearness allowance in respect of workers who receive both these components, while for other workers the actual consolidated amount of earnings represent wage rate. 4.1.2 During the course of survey in the food processing industries including Sea food and marine products, the data was collected to have in-depth view of some of the characteristics of the existing wage structure, system of payment of wages, periodicity of wage payment, man days worked and paid for, bonus and other allowances, etc. 4.2 SYSTEM OF WAGE PAYMENT 4.2.1 During the survey the data were collected on the system of payment of wages to the workers, which are presented in Table 4.1. The survey results show that majority of workers were being paid on the time rated basis. In all the industries except Production of Common Salt, 90% and above workers were paid on time rated basis although moderate proportion of female workers (20.6%) was being paid on piece-rate basis in the Production of Common Salt industry. 4.3 PERIODICITY OF WAGE PAYMENT 4.3.1 Section 4 of the Payment of Wages Act, 1936 lay down that no wage period fixed by the unit for the employees shall exceed one month. Sex wise data on wage period for all workers employed in the sample units is presented in Table 4.2 which shows that most of workers were being paid on monthly basis. In Manufacture of Cocoa 94.4% of female workers were paid on monthly basis followed by 73.2% in Malted food, 70.2% in Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, 63.2% in Processing and Preservation of Fish and 50.7% -26-

in Production of Common Salt. The survey results further show that in Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables no worker was found to be paid on fortnightly basis. Also no woman worker was found being paid daily or fortnightly in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) industry. 4.4 WAGE RATES AND EARNINGS 4.4.1 Sex wise average daily earnings have been presented in Table 4.3. The survey results show that maximum employment (57.35%) of manual woman workers was in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish etc., whereas minimum employment (17.79%) was in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) industry as presented in Table 3.1. Further, the results of the survey as presented in Table 4.3 also depict that women were found employed mostly in the unskilled occupations like General Mazdoor, Helper, Process Workers, Process assistant, Dispatcher, Waterwomen, etc. 4.4.2 In Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables, 93.7% women workers were engaged in unskilled jobs like helper, process workers, process assistant, stocking dispatch, packer, packing assistant etc. The average daily earnings as regard to women workers in these unskilled occupations, maximum (Rs.200) were reported in the occupation of Labour/ Worker/ Process worker of the units, whereas the lowest average daily earnings (Rs.30) for women were found in the occupation of helper, sweeper, cleaner, etc. 4.4.3 In Canning and Preservation of Fish industry, 94% women workers were engaged in mainly five occupations i.e. Grader/ Grading work, Packer/ Packing assistant, Sweeper/ Cleaner, Loader/ Unloader and Labour/ workers/ process worker etc. In this industry, for women workers, maximum of Rs. 205 was reported as average daily earning in the occupation of Labour/ Worker etc., whereas for men worker it was Rs. 231 while minimum of Rs.27 as average daily earnings were reported in occupations of Sweeper and Cleaners for women workers, it was Rs. 73 for men workers. 4.4.4 In the Production of Common salt industry 88.7% women workers were engaged in two occupations namely Labour/ Worker and Scrapper/ Salt Transporter. However, average daily earnings for women workers in these occupations, the maximum of Rs.100 were reported in the occupation of Labour/ Worker, while the minimum of Rs.35 as average daily earnings were also reported in this category. -27-

4.4.5 In the production of Cocoa products 93.6% women workers are engaged in mainly three occupations i.e. Packer/ Packing Assistant, helper and Labour/ Workers. However maximum of Rs.135 as average daily earnings for women workers in the above occupations were reported in the occupations of Packer/ Packing Assistant and the minimum average daily earnings of Rs.27 for women workers were also reported in this category of occupation. 4.4.6 The survey results for the industry of Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products reveal that 91.7% women workers were employed in mainly three occupations i.e. Packer/ Packing Assistant, Helper and Labour/ Workers. Further, in the women workers, the average daily earnings of Rs.390 were reported for Packer/ Packing Assistant, Rs. 124 in Labour/ Workers and Rs. 140 in Helper occupations. 4.5 EARNINGS BY MODE OF PAYMENT. 4.5.1 Average minimum and maximum earnings by mode of payment for men and women workers have been depicted in Table 4.4. In the case of maximum wages in time rated workers, the results reveal that men workers were paid more than the women workers in all the industries. The maximum disparities between the wages were found in Malted Food and Processing and Canning Industry. The survey result further show that in the category of time rated workers, the highest (Rs.500) average daily earnings of woman workers were found in the Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables industry followed by Rs.471 per day in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat), Rs. 450 per day in Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products, Rs.295 in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish and Rs.94 in Production of Common Salt industry. However, for the women time rated workers, the lowest Rs.19 were reported in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat) which is the lowest per day earning amongst all the time rated workers in all the five food processing industries covered during the survey. Further, as regard to piece rated women workers, the highest of Rs.214 were recorded in Production of Common Salt industry followed by Rs.195 in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish, Rs.116 in Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papads, Appalams, Sago and sago Products, Rs.96 per day in Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables and Rs.68 per day in Manufacture of Cocoa Products, Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat). The lowest per day earnings of Rs. 26 for women workers among the piece rated category were reported in the industry of Malted Food, Grinding and Processing of Spices, Papad, Appalams, Sago and Sago Products, etc. -28-

4.6 MANDAYS WORKED AND PAID FOR 4.6.1 Mandays worked and paid for in respect of time rated and piece rated workers have been presented in Table 4.5. The survey results envisage that the units covered under the food processing industries were not wholly perennial in nature. The survey findings further depict that maximum average mandays per worker worked in a month for time-rated workers were found to be 14.9 in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish whereas the lowest 5.6 mandays per worker worked in a month was found in Production of Common salt which is seasonal industry. The data thrown up by the survey further reveal that units prefer to get their work done on piece rated basis as the maximum average mandays per worker worked for piece rated workers were found to be 24.40 in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (except Sweet Meat). 4.7 BONUS AND OTHER ALLOWANCES 4.7.1 Number of Units paying bonus, number of workers paid bonus and rate of bonus have been presented in Table 4.6. The survey results show that in all the five industries covered in food processing activities, all of them have paid bonus annually to their workers. Further the results depict that 97.7% Units in Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish have paid bonus whereas the lowest (51.6%) number of units paying annual bonus to their workers were found in Canning and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables. The highest proportion of male workers (83.6%) as also the lowest proportion of female workers (16.4%) who were paid bonus was found in Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat). The rate of payment of bonus varied from 4% to 8.3% of wages of the workers. However, 8.3% bonus rate was reported by 97.7% of units of Processing, Canning and Preservation of Fish followed by 82.8% Units of Production of Common Salt and 80% units of Manufacture of Cocoa Products Confectionery (Except Sweet Meat). 4.7.2 Other allowances paid by the units like Transport Allowance, House Rent Allowance and Medical Allowance have been presented in Table 4.7. The survey results show that none of the units of Production of Common salt industry was found paying any such allowance to their workers. However, marginal numbers of units were paying Transport Allowance and House Rent Allowance to their workers. Only few units in Manufacture of Cocoa Products & Malted food were paying Medical Allowance to their workers. ***** -29-