xix LIST OF TABLES TABLE No. DESCRIPTION PAGE No. CHAPTER 2 2.1 Forms of various fillers 28 2.2 Typical chemical analyses of wollastonite filler grades 37 2.3 Typical properties of wollastonite 38 2.4 Economic benefits of using wollastonite as functional 39 filler. 2.5 Effect of filler type on properties 49 2.6 Electroless plating (Nickel) procedure 58 CHAPTER 3 3.1 Part Description Table 84 3.2 Specifications of Infrared Quartz Heating Element 88 CHAPTER 4 4.1 Technical specifications of CaSiO3 as received from Mehta sons 4.2 Blends formulation for polyamide 6 / CaSiO3 98 4.3 Properties of ABS 99 4.4 Properties of Nylon6 100 4.5 Etching solution Details 102 4.6 Activation solution 105 4.7 Electroless plating solution 106 4.8 Copper plating solution 109 CHAPTER 5 5.1 Observation table for plastics identification 127 5.2 Specific gravity Test 127 5.3 Density of ABS and Nylon6 and its composites under 129 study 5.4 (a) Melting point values of Normal samples 132 5.4 (b) Melting point observations on Electroplated samples 132 5.5 Explanation for adhesion test ratings 138 5.6 Observations of Heat Sink Test on ABS, N6, and CaSiO3 140 reinforced N6 samples 5.7 Details of the salt spray test on the electroplated samples 143 5.8 Technical specifications of SEM-EDS installed in SAIF, 161 STIC, Cochin CHAPTER 6 6.1 Properties of Normal ABS Samples 165 6.2 Properties of Normal N6 Samples 165 6.3 Properties of Normal ABS Samples 171 6.4 Properties of Normal N6 Samples 172 6.5 Tensile, flexure, and compressive properties of ABS samples. 6.6 Tensile, flexure, and compressive properties of N6 samples 97 176 176
xx 6.7 Tensile, flexure, and compressive properties of Normal N6 183 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites 6.8 Tensile, flexure and compressive properties of water 184 absorbed N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites 6.9 Results of Acetic Acid Etching on ABS, N6 and CaSiO3 197 reinforced N6 Composites 6.10 Surface Roughness Values of Uncoated (Non-plated) and 199 Coated (plated) 6.11 Coating Thickness Measurement Values of Electroplated 201 ABS and N6 Samples 6.12 Tensile, flexure and compressive properties of ABS, N6 214 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under electroplated 6.13 Wear test results of ABS: Details of changes in wear 226 coefficient and wear loss in grams for applied constant normal loads for varying velocities and constant sliding distance of 1000 m 6.14 Pin on Disk wear test results of N6: Details of changes in 236 wear coefficient and wear loss in grams for applied constant normal loads for varying velocities and constant 6.15 Hardness Values of ABS, N6 and N6/CaSiO3 samples 258 6.16 LOI of ABS and N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites 259 6.17 Void Content for N6 / CaSiO3 Composites 260 6.18 Properties of ABS and Unreinforced N6 263 6.19 Electrical Properties of ABS, N6, and CaSiO3 reinforced 263 N6 Composites under normal 6.20 Electrical Properties of ABS, N6, and CaSiO3 reinforced 266 N6 Composites under water absorbed 6.21 Breakdown Voltage and Dielectric Strength of ABS, N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 Composites under Normal 268 Conditions. 6.22 Breakdown Voltage and Dielectric Strength of ABS, N6, 268 and CaSiO3 Reinforced N6 Composites under Water Absorbed Conditions 6.23 Chemical resistance tests in terms of percentage weight change in weight after dipping for 24 hours of the ABS, N6, and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites 270 CHAPTER 8 8.1 Technical Details of the Injection Moulding Machine used in the study 298
xxi FIGURE NO. LIST OF FIGURES DESCRIPTION PAGE NO. CHAPTER 2 2.1 Classification of composites 18 2.2 Molecular structure of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) 2.3 Typical molecular structure of polyamide series 35 2.4 Kink sites, edge sites and ad atoms on electrodeposited surface. 2.5 The Haring-Blum cell 69 2.6 Electroplating process 70 CHAPTER 3 3.1 Line diagram of the plating unit. 84 3.2 Electroplating setup at Alpha College of Engineering, Bengaluru 3.3 Polypropylene tank used in the study 85 3.4 3.5 Temperature controller, thermocouple and heating element Electroplating anode bags used in copper and nickel plating 3.6 Copper and nickel anodes used in the study 90 3.7 Transformer used in the study 91 3.8 Chemicals used in electroplating 93 CHAPTER 4 4.1 Research flow chart 96 4.2 Steps involved in electroplating of ABS plastics 101 4.3 Chromic acid preparation process 103 4.4 ABS tensile samples before etching 103 4.5 ABS tensile samples after etching 104 4.6 Activator solution preparation process 105 4.7 4.8 ABS tensile samples subjected to tin chloride treatment (activator solution a) ABS tensile samples subjected to silver nitrate treatment (activator solution b) 29 62 84 87 89 105 106 4.9 Preparation of electroless plating solution 107 4.10 Samples dipped in electroless solution 107 4.11 Hardness / Impact samples after electro less plating and rinsing 108 4.12 ABS tensile samples after acid copper plating 109
xxii 4.13 ABS tensile samples after nickel plating 110 4.14 ABS tensile samples after chrome flash 111 4.15 Stepwise plating process of ABS samples from right to left (b: basic sample, i: etched samples, t: activated samples, ns: silver nitrate treated samples, es: electroless treated, c: copper plated, n: nickelplated, ch: chrome flashed) 112 4.16 Steps involved in electroplating of N6 plastics 113 4.17 Samples before painting 114 4.18 Scoring of samples with sand paper 114 4.19 Scored samples after painting 114 4.20 Conductivity measurement using digital multimeter 114 4.21 Conductive painting of scored tensile N6 samples 115 4.22 Transfer of acid copper solution into electroplating tub 116 4.23 Immersion of conductive painted flexure samples into acid copper tub 117 4.24 Rinsing of copper plated samples 117 4.25 Preparation of nickel plating solution 118 4.26 Immersion of copper plated samples in nickel plating bath 119 4.27 Nickel plated flexure samples 119 4.28 Chrome salt solution 120 4.29 Addition of barium carbonate to the chrome solution 121 4.30 Chrome flashed hardness sample 121 CHAPTER 5 5.1 Plastics identification chart 126 5.2 Acetic acid immersion test 134 5.3 Surface roughness measurement 136 5.4 Samples subjected to surface roughness tests 136 5.5 Samples subjected for microscopic coating thickness analysis 137 5.6 Heat sink analysis samples 140 5.7 Samples subjected to salt spray test 142 5.8 Universal testing machine model: Tue-C 400 of 40 T 145 5.9 Tensile test sample as per ASTM D638 (Type I) 146 5.10 Compression and ash content test sample 147 5.11 Flexural testing machine used in the study 149 5.12 Dimensions of flexure test sample as per ASTMD790 149 5.13 Hardness /Drop impact / Void content test sample 150 5.14 Modified Drop weight impact testing machine 151 5.15 Wear test specimen used in the study 155
xxiii 5.16 Electronic balance with wear sample 155 5.17 Wear testing machine used in the research 156 CHAPTER 6 6.1 Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS Samples 167 6.2 Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 Samples 168 6.3 Flexure test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS samples 168 6.4 Flexure test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 samples 169 6.5 6.6 Compression test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS samples Compression test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 samples 170 170 6.7 Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS Samples 172 6.8 Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 samples 173 6.9 Percentage water absorption of ABS and N6 samples 175 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS Normal and Water absorbed samples Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 Normal and Water absorbed samples Flexure test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS Normal and Water absorbed samples Flexure test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 Normal and Water absorbed samples Compressive test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS Normal and Water absorbed samples Compressive test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 Normal and Water absorbed samples Scanning electron micrograph of CaSiO3 used in the study Percentage water absorption by N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 Composites 177 177 178 178 179 180 182 183 6.18 Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under normal 184 6.19 6.20 6.21 Tensile test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under water absorbed Scanning electron micrograph and EDS of fractured (tensile) 1% N6 samples under Normal Scanning electron micrographs of fractured (tensile) 3% N6 samples under Normal 185 189 190
xxiv 6.22 Scanning electron micrographs of fractured (tensile) 5% N6 samples under Normal 191 6.23 Flexure test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under normal 192 6.24 6.25 6.26 Flexure test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under water absorbed Compression test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under normal Compression test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under water absorbed 192 194 195 6.27 (a) Activated (silver nitrate) sample 202 6.27 (b) Copper Plated Samples 203 6.27 (c) Nickel Plated Samples 204 6.27 (d) Coating thickness analysis of electroplated ABS samples using SEM / EDS analysis 205 6.28 (a) Silver Painted N6 sample 206 6.28 (b) Copper plated N6 Sample 207 6.28 (c) Nickel plated N6 Sample 208 6.28 (d) Chromium plated N6 Sample 209 6.29 Adhesion Tape Test 211 6.30 6.31 6.32 Tension test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS, N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under electroplated Flexure test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS, N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under electroplated Compression test: Stress vs. Strain diagram of ABS, N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 composites under electroplated 212 214 216 6.33 6.34 Energy absorbed vs. Drop mass of samples under normal, 24 hours water absorbed and electroplated for a drop height of 400 mm and an impact speed of 2.5 m/s Energy absorbed vs. Drop mass of samples under normal, 24 hours water absorbed and electroplated for a drop height of 800 mm and an impact speed of 3.5 m/s 218 219
xxv 6.35 Energy absorbed vs. Drop mass of samples under normal, 24 hours water absorbed and electroplated for a drop height of 1200 mm and an impact speed of 4.5 m/s 220 6.36 SEM of 5 % CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples before impact 223 6.37 SEM of 5 % CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples after impact 223 6.38 Pin on disk wear testing apparatus 224 6.39 6.40 (a) 6.40 (b) 6.40 (c) 6.40 (d) 6.41 6.42 6.43 Coefficient of wear and Wear loss as a function of Rubbing velocity and Load for a constant sliding distance of 1000 m for Normal ABS Samples. SEM of Normal ABS sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 2.5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m SEM of Normal ABS sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m. (at x100 magnification) SEM of Normal ABS sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m. (at x1500 magnification) SEM of Normal ABS sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 7.5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m Coefficient of wear and Wear loss as a function of Rubbing velocity and Load for a constant sliding distance of 1000 m for 24 hours water absorbed ABS Samples Heat generated and COW as a function of applied Load for a constant for 24 hours water absorbed ABS Samples SEM of 24 hours water absorbed ABS sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 2.5 m/s and 226 228 228 229 229 229 230 232 6.44 6.45 Coefficient of wear and Wear loss as a function of Rubbing velocity and Load for a constant sliding distance of 1000 m for Electroplated ABS Samples Heat generated and COW as a function of applied Load for a constant for electroplated ABS Samples 233 233
xxvi 6.46 6.47 6.48 (a) 6.48 (b) 6.48 (c) 6.49 6.50 6.50 (a) 6.50 (b) 6.51 6.52 6.53 6.54 (a) SEM of Electroplated ABS sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m Coefficient of wear and wear loss as a function of Rubbing velocity and Load for a constant sliding distance of 1000 m for normal N6 Samples SEM of Normal N6 sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 2.5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m SEM of Normal N6 sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m SEM of Normal N6 sample subjected to applied load of 7 kg, sliding velocity of 7.5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m Coefficient of wear and wear loss as a function of Rubbing velocity and Load for a constant sliding distance of 1000 m for 24 hours water absorbed N6 Samples Heat generated as a function of rubbing velocity and applied load for a constant for 24 hours water absorbed N6 Samples SEM of 24 hours water absorbed N6 sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and Enlarged view of SEM of 24 hours water absorbed N6 sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and Coefficient of wear and Wear loss as a function of Rubbing velocity and Load for a constant sliding distance of 1000 m for EP-N6 Samples Heat generated vs. sliding speed for a constant sliding distance of 1000 m for Electroplated N6 Samples under varying loads Relationship between wear coefficient of PA6 metal combination and wear rate of PA6 sample and PV value for dry sliding condition, water absorbed condition and electroplated condition Effect of sliding speed and applied load on wear coefficients of 1 %, 3 %, and 5 % CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under dry sliding 235 237 238 238 239 239 240 241 241 242 244 245 247
xxvii 6.54 (b) 6.54 (c) 6.54 (d) 6.54 (e) 6.54 (f) 6.54 (g) 6.54 (h) 6.54 (i) 6.54 (j) 6.55 (a) 6.55 (b) 6.55 (c) Effect of sliding speed and applied load on wear loss of 1 %, 3 %, and 5 % CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under dry sliding Effect of sliding speed and applied load on heat generated of 1 %, 3 %, and 5 % CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under dry sliding SEM of N6+1% CaSiO3 reinforced sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m SEM of N6+1% CaSiO3 reinforced sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 7.5 m/s and SEM of N6+1% CaSiO3 reinforced sample subjected to applied load of 3 kg, sliding velocity of 7.5 m/s and SEM of N6+3% CaSiO3 reinforced sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m SEM of N6+3% CaSiO3 reinforced sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 7.5 m/s and SEM of N6 +5% CaSiO3 reinforced sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 5 m/s and sliding distance of 1000 m SEM of N6+5% CaSiO3 reinforced sample subjected to applied load of 1 kg, sliding velocity of 7.5 m/s and Effect of sliding speed and applied load on wear coefficients of 1%, 3%, and 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under 24 hours water absorbed Effect of sliding speed and applied load on wear loss of 1%, 3%, and 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under 24 hours water absorbed Effect of sliding speed and applied load on heat generated of 1%, 3%, and 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under 24 hours water absorbed 247 247 247 248 248 248 248 249 249 249 249 250
xxviii 6.56 SEM image of 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 sample subjected to a sliding speed of 7.5 m/s and load of 7 Kg (Yellow circles: agglomerates of CaSiO3; Thin red circles: Dispersed products of hydration; Thick red circle: C-H- S; Thick green circle: presence of micropores) 251 6.57 (a) 6.57 (b) Effect of sliding speed and applied load on Coefficient of friction of 1%, 3%, and 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under electroplated Effect of sliding speed and applied load on Wear Loss of 1%, 3% and 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under electroplated 252 252 6.57 (c) 6.58 6.59 Effect of sliding speed and applied load on Heat generated of 1%, 3% and 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 samples under electroplated Time taken to peel-off vs. sliding velocity and applied load for electroplated samples (1%, 3% and 5%). SEM of worn out 5% CaSiO3 reinforced N6 electroplated sample (yellow circles: dislodged electroplated particles that causes wear) 253 255 256 6.60 Hardness Test Values of ABS, N6 and N6/CaSiO3 258 6.61 Percentage Ignition Loss of ABS, N6 and N6 / CaSiO3 Composites 259 6.62 Percentage of Void Content in N6 / CaSiO3 Composites. 260 6.63 SEM of 1% N6/CaSiO3 Samples 261 6.64 SEM of 3% N6/CaSiO3 Samples 261 6.65 SEM of 5% N6/CaSiO3 Samples 261 6.66 Comparison of Surface and Volume resistivity of ABS with N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 Composites in Normal Conditions 264 6.67 Surface and Volume Resistivity of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 Composites in Water Absorbed Conditions 266 6.68 Breakdown voltage and Dielectric strength of N6 and CaSiO3 reinforced N6 Composites in Normal and Water absorbed 268 6.69 (a) Chemical resistance of ABS samples 270 6.69 (b) Chemical resistance of N6 samples 271
xxix 6.69 (c) 6.69 (d) Chemical resistance of N6 reinforced with 1% CaSiO3 samples Chemical resistance of N6 reinforced with 3% CaSiO3 samples. 271 272 6.69 (e) Chemical resistance of N6 reinforced with 5% CaSiO3 samples 272 CHAPTER 7 7.1 Tensile test specimen (ABS) 276 7.2 Meshed model of the tensile test specimen (ABS) 277 5.3 Tensile strength distribution of ABS (EP) in MPa 277 7.4 Comparison of experimental and FEA results of Tensile Strength samples 278 7.5 Compression test specimen (N6) 279 7.6 Meshed model of the tensile test specimen (N6) 280 7.7 Compressive strength distribution of N6 (EP) in MPa 280 7.8 Comparison of experimental and FEA results of Compressive Strength samples. 281 7.9 Impact test specimen (N6+1%) 282 7.10 Meshed model of the Impact test specimen (N6+1%) 283 7.11 Impact stress distribution of N6+1% (EP) in MPa 283 7.12 7.13 7.14 Deformation due to impact in N6+1% CaSiO3 Electroplated Comparison of experimental and FEA results of Impact test samples Flexure test specimen with indenter and supports (N6+3%) 284 285 286 7.15 Meshed model of the Flexure test specimen (N6+3%) 287 7.16 Flexure stress distribution of N6+3% (EP) in MPa 287 7.17. Comparison of experimental and FEA results of Flexural test samples 288 CHAPTER 8 8.1 Metalized polyester film 291 8.2 Injection moulding machine used in the development of samples at shrinidhi plastics 293 8.3 Developed textile samples at shrinidhi plastics 294 8.4 Electroplating procedure on ABS plastics 295 8.5 8.6 Electroplating procedure adopted for plating on N6 / PA6 samples N6 buckles and stoppers developed in coordination with shrinidhi plastics 295 297
xxx LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABBREVIATION ABS AFM ASTM c.d CAD CAE CaSiO3 C-H-S CM CMCs COW CPs DM DSC EC EDS EI EP EP N6 EP-ABS FEA FEM FT-IR GRP HDPE HDT hrs HST HVLP IM ipp IS LDPE LOI Md DESCRIPTION Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Atomic Force Microscopy American Society Of Testing Materials Current Density Computer-Aided Design Computer-Aided Engineering Calcium Inosilicate /Calcium Silicate / Calcium Meta Silicate / Wollastonite calcium silicate hydrate Compression Moulding Ceramic Matrix Composites Coefficient of Friction Conductive Paints Demineralised Differential Scanning Calorimetry Electrolytic Copper Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy Electromagnetic Interference Electroplated Electroplated Nylon6 Electroplated - polyacrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Finite Element Analysis Finite Element Methods Fourier Transform Infrared Analysis Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic High Density Polyethylene Heat Deflection Temperature Hours Heat Sink Temperature High-Volume, Low-Pressure Injection Moulding Isotactic Polypropylene Standards India Low-Density Polyethylene Loss On Ignition Measured Density
xxxi MMCs Metal Matrix Composites MRN Mineral-Reinforced Nylon N6 Nylon 6 NDT Nondestructive Tests PA6 Polyamide 6 PA66 Polyamide 66 PAI Polyamideimide PCB Printed Circuit Boards PDO Phosphorous De-Oxidised PE Polyethylene PEEK Polyether Ether Ketone PEK Polyetherketone PMCs Polymer Matrix Composites POM Polyoxymethylene POP Plating-On-Plastics PP Polypropylene PS Polystyrene PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene PVC Polyvinyl Chloride RH Relative Humidity RTM Resin Transfer Moulding SAPs Solid Anode Particles SEM Scanning Electron Micrograph Td Tg Tm UHM-PE UHMWPE Theoretical Density Glass Transition Temperature Melting Temperature Ultra High Molecular Polyethylene Ultra-High Molecular Weight Polyethylene