Introducing Management Definitions Management roles Management & leadership Core qualities of managers Levels of management Competency-driven management Challenges of managing diverse workforces in diverse societies 1 What management is The coordination and integration of resources Human Financial Physical Technological for the efficient and effective achievement of organizational goals and objectives 2
Some background 3 Management theory: Four eras The so-called four eras of management theory are not mutually exclusive they overlap considerably and elements from earlier eras remain influential in later eras. Classic Behavioral Human relations Modern Each era is marked by characteristic assumptions about human motivation, authority, and organizational structure. 4
Management theory: Classic Emerged in response to increasing scope, scale, and complexity of modern organizations Little systematic research on organizations or management prior to about 1870 Writing on organizations and management: Advice books, first hand accounts by managers, autobiographies Early management theory addressed several issues: Organizing workers more efficiently and effectively Identifying what managers do Organizational structure 5 Example of early management theory Frederick Taylor: Scientific management Henri Fayol: Management functions & principles Max Weber 6
Important ideas from classical management theory Unity of command Scalar principle / centralization Division of labor / departmentation Span of control Formal organizational rules & regulations 7 Management theory: Behavioral Response to emerging concern about shortcomings of classical management theory Shifted focus from management functions and organization structure to employees specifically, motivations to work Recognized that organizations are social structures Examples: Elton Mayo s Hawthorne project (most significant early behavioral management study) Theory X / Theory Y Herzberg s hygiene factors / motivators 8
Some contemporary management ideas TQM Best Practices Learning organizations Outcomes-based management Located outside the organization Inputs Activities Outputs Outcomes Strategic management & leadership 9 Recent ideas about management 10
Concepts of management continue to evolve Four change factors : demand (probably better referred to as market) technology information flow people As managers respond to these change factors, how we define and understand management is also changing 11 The management environment Scarcity Complexity Uncertainty Competition Conflict 12
Management as function or task Management traditionally defined in terms of functions or tasks, the type of work managers do Many lists of these functions or tasks, some quite long and elaborate These lists reduce to four basic categories: Planning Organizing Directing Controlling 13 Management as interpersonal influence Management increasingly defined in terms of interpersonal interaction and influence, in large part because of changes in structure and content of work composition of the workforce Managers increasingly seen in terms of the roles they play when interacting with others: Leader Communicator Coach Mentor Change Agent 14
Eight Key Points From Modern Management Clearly defined values should drive the organization. A known vision that directs the organization is essential. Organizations should be customer driven. Managers must recognize employee contributions. Managers must foster collaboration among staff and treat employees as valuable assets. Organizations must invest in their employees through training and development. Managers must give employees freedom to take risks so they can learn from mistakes and foster innovation and change. Organizations must foster a culture of trust among all employees based on honesty, integrity, and ethical behavior. 15 Eight Key Points From Modern Management (continued) Managers must foster collaboration among staff and treat employees as valuable assets. Organizations must invest in their employees through training and development. Managers must give employees freedom to take risks so they can learn from mistakes and foster innovation and change. Organizations must foster a culture of trust among all employees based on honesty, integrity, and ethical behavior. 16
Management & leadership changing ideas about their relationship 17 Managers as leaders Management: The process of coordinating and integrating resources to achieve organizational goals and objectives effectively and efficiently Leadership: Interpersonal influence over others aimed at achieving organizational goals, objectives, and strategies Management and leadership previously regarded as clearly distinguishable Managers not necessarily leaders, leaders not necessarily managers Time and place for each Leadership now widely regarded as a central element in management Managers must be effective leaders, but not all leaders are effective managers 18
Leadership theories: Traits Some people are born to be good leaders Genetic predisposition toward good leadership abilities Leadership abilities based on physical traits personality traits Trait theories of leadership discredited by research 19 Leadership theories: Behavioral Focus on what leaders do Leadership is a learned behavior and therefore not genetic Examples of behavioral theories of leadership Lewin s leadership styles Ohio State & Univ. of Michigan leadership studies Leadership grid 20
Lewin s studies of leadership style Research identified following three basic leadership styles Autocratic Centralized authority, prescribed work methods & routines, unilateral decision-making, limited employee participation Democratic Authority delegated, employee participation in determining work methods & routines, employee participation in decision-making, coaching style when providing feedback to employees Laissez-faire Hands off, employees free to determine work methods & routines 21 Lewin: Consequences of leadership style Lewin compared leadership styles based on three performance indicators: Quantity of work, quality of work & group satisfaction Autocratic leadership style least effective on all three indicators Democratic Highest quality of work & group satisfaction, tied with laissezfair on quantity of work Laissez-faire Quality of work & group satisfaction in the middle, tied with democratic on quantity of work 22
Ohio State & Univ. of Michigan leadership studies Ohio State studies identified two dimensions of leadership initiating structure emphasis on defining & structuring management & employee roles in order to accomplish organizational goals consideration emphasis on developing mutual trust based on respect for employees ideas and satisfaction Univ. of Michigan studies also identified two similar leadership dimensions employee orientation production orientation 23 Leadership theories: Situational & contingency Leadership depends on the interaction of several factors: the leader the follower the situation Example of a situational theory: Hersey & Blanchard s tridimensional leader effectiveness model 24
Hersey & Blanchard tridimensional leader effectiveness model Example of situational theory of leadership Four leadership dimensions the leader chooses which to emphasize based on changes in situation High relationship / low task Low relationship / low task High relationship / high task Low relationship / high task High Relationship Low Low Task High 25 Leadership theories: 4 recent approaches Charismatic leadership personality, character, dynanism Transactional leadership bargaining style. rewards / punishments Transformational leadership vision, trust, integrity, lead by example Kouzes & Posner s leadership challenge 26
Kouzes & Posner on leadership Leadership as the core of effective management: Kouzes & Posner s Five Practices of Leadership and Ten Commitments of Leadership Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. 27 Kouzes & Posner (2007, p. 26) 5 Practices of Leadership 10 Commitments of Leadership 1. Model the way 2. Inspire a shared vision 3. Challenge the process 4. Enable others to act 5. Encourage the heart Clarify values by finding your voice & affirming shared ideals Set the example by aligning actions with shared values Envision the future by imagining exciting & ennobling possibilities Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to shared aspirations Search for opportunities by seizing the initiative, looking outward for innovative ways to improve Experiment & take risks by constantly generating small wins, learning from experience Foster collaboration by building trust & facilitating relationships Strengthen others by increasing self-determination & developing competence Recognizing contributions by showing appreciation for individual excellence Celebrate values & victories by creating a spirit of community 28
Leadership as a relationship Kouzes & Posner s findings can be summarized as follows To be an effective leader, there is a specific set of leadership skills and abilities that can be learned and developed. Leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who choose to follow (2007, p. 24; emphasis added). Leadership skills and abilities are not enough by themselves it s not just what leaders can do that makes them effective, but who they are. Kouzes and Posner therefore investigated what attributes a leader must have to build the kind of relationships that make leaders effective. 29 Credibility is the foundation of leadership. In research conducted over twenty-five years in many highly diverse contexts, Kouzes and Posner found that personal credibility is the essential attribute for effective leadership. They defined credibility as composed of four key elements: Honesty is truthful, ethical, principled Forward-looking can articulate a clear vision of the future, then connect this vision to their constituents individual aspirations and hopes Inspiring is enthusiastic, energetic, positive; gives meaning to the work people do Competent able to get things done, clear track record of success 30
Kouzes & Posner s 2 Laws of Leadership Kouzes & Posner summarize their discussion of credibility as the foundation of leadership by stating two laws for leadership. If you don t believe the messenger, you won t believe the message. DWYSYWD: Do What You Say You Will Do 31 Management levels 32
3 basic management levels Senior management CEO President General manager Middle management Sales manager Facility manager Director of catering Frontline management Program supervisor Head lifeguard Maintenance crew chief 33 Responsibility & authority Responsibility = what a manager is in charge of the youth athletics program, a rec center, the guest services department Authority = the power that comes with where a manager fits on the organization chart (think unity of command and scalar principle) Both authority and responsibility change as managers change levels in an organization both become broader as you go higher in an organization and narrower as you go lower 34
Four categories of individual competency KSAs Knowledge Skills Understanding of information required for the job Abilities Physical and/or psychomotor aptitudes required to perform specific job tasks and actions How well an individual performs specific tasks and behaviors required by the job Characteristics How well an individual performs specific tasks and behaviors required by the job Qualities, attributes, and/or traits desirable for the job 35 Management functions Technical: What a manager does to get things done, to accomplish tasks & complete procedures Human relations: Dealing with people in the organization (e.g., employees, other managers) and people outside the organization (e.g., customers, participants, clients, investors) Conceptual: Seeing the larger picture, thinking strategically, planning, communicating 36
Competencies, functions & management levels Each management function technical, human relations & conceptual requires a different mix of competencies Each management level tends to emphasize a specific management function with its associated mix of competencies Human relations competencies are important at all management levels 37 Management functions & levels Frontline managers Technical Middle managers Technical Human relations Executive managers Technical Human relations Human relations Conceptual Conceptual Conceptual 38
Competency-based management 39 Four categories of individual competency KSAs Knowledge Skills Understanding of information required for the job Physical and/or psychomotor aptitudes required to perform specific job tasks and actions Abilities How well an individual performs specific tasks and behaviors required by the job Characteristics How well an individual performs specific tasks and behaviors required by the job Qualities, attributes, and/or traits desirable for the job 40
Entry-level competencies in leisure services Business knowledge Communications Community relations Interpersonal skills Management techniques Planning and evaluation 41 How competencies are used To determine hiring criteria To establish training and development benchmarks To set performance evaluation standards To guide career development and advancement 42
Becoming a manager means changes You ll need a broader perspective on the organization and your place in it, a change in outlook and perhaps attitude. The human element becomes more important: You re responsible not just for your own work, but for managing the work of others. Your success depends on the success of your employees, individually and as a group. You can t do it all by yourself, but must rely on others. You are responsible for making things happen, for changing goals into actual outcomes as effectively and efficiently as possible. You must anticipate what needs to be done, not wait to be told. 43