May, 2015 Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.6 No.3 J. Resour. Ecol. 2015 6 (3) 164-171 DOI:10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2015.03.005 www.jorae.cn Article Construction of the Comprehensive Energy Consumption Assessment Model for Star-rated Hotels and the Difference Analysis HUANG Qi 1 *, KANG Jiancheng 2 and HUANG Chenhao 3 1 School of Tourism, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 201418, China; 2 Urban Ecology and Environment Research Center, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China; 3 School of Mechanical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China Abstract: Recent years have witnessed a rapid development of star-rated hotels in China, especially highend star-rated hotels. Consequently, there are now approximately12 000 hotels in China. One bottleneck within the industry is its huge energy consumption and carbon emissions, but the development of a comprehensive energy consumption assessment has lagged. Here, a comprehensive energy consumption and carbon emission model suitable for hospitality is established, using comprehensive data collected for hotels over six years and with reference to general international methods, decomposition analysis methods as recommended by the IPCC, and related standards in China. Our study shows that the maximum comparable unit energy consumption per building area among four- and five-star hotels is 73.26 kg ce m -2 y -1. Through energy-saving reconstruction, the comprehensive energy consumption of five-star hotels has declined by 4.1% in six years and is smaller than the advanced comparable value of 55 kg ce m -2 y -1. The comparable unit energy consumption per area building of most two- and three-star hotels (53 kg ce m -2 y -1 ) is higher than the reasonable value. There are large numbers of hotels of this type in China and the potential energy savings are huge. Analyzing factors of energy consumption, we found that indirect carbon emissions from electricity usage are the most significant. From an energy consumption structural perspective, Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) System accounts for most energy consumption. This research provides a foundation for further examination of energy-savings, emission reduction plans and Monitoring Reporting Verification (MRV) in the hospitality sector. Key words: assessment model; carbon emission; energy consumption decomposition; star-rated hotels; energysaving potential 1 Introduction 1.1 Background Climate change and increasing resource scarcity will have a huge effect on the sustainable development of human society. Implementing energy-saving and emission reduction policies, a green economy and realizing sustainable development have become major issues for all countries. Chinese oil imports accounted for more than 50% of energy consumption (UNEP 2013). At the same time, China is currently the world s largest carbon emitter (UNEP 2013): China accounted for 28% of total global carbon emissions in 2011, which is more than the sum of carbon emissions from the USA and the European Union (UNEP 2011). China now faces dual pressures from energy supplementation and environmental protection and the Chinese government has promised in the China s Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate Change (2011) that Chinese carbon dioxide emissions per unit GDP will decrease 40% to 45% by 2020, compared 2005 levels (The State Council Information office of the People s Republic of China 2011). Tourism plays an important role in developing the world economy. It is estimated that globally there are four billion domestic tourists and 940 million international tourists each Received: 2014-07-30 Accepted: 2015-01-26 Foundation: Key Discipline Project of Shanghai Municipal Education Commission (No. J50402); Key Research of Shanghai Institute of Tourism (No. RS2015-B3). * Corresponding author: HUANG Qi. Email: markjay@sina.com.
HUANG Qi, et al.: Construction of the Comprehensive Energy Consumption Assessment Model for Star-rated Hotels and the Difference Analysis 165 year. The United Nations Environment Program points out in the report Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication that the tourism economy accounts for more than 5% of global GDP; the number of employees in tourism accounts for 8% of global employment; international tourism ranks 4 th in international exports (after fuel, chemicals and automotive products); and accounts for 30% of the world s commercial services. Tourism is among the top five most important sources of income formore than 150 countries. Tourism is also the most important source of foreign exchange, accounting for one third for developing countries and a half for developed countries. The sustainable development of tourism is influenced by high consumption and high emission characteristics. The greenhouse gas emissions from the tourism industry accounted for 5% to 13% of total global emissions (1302 1476 Mt of carbon dioxide)(the World Economic Forum in 2005). Long travel distances, short travel periods and energy intensive modes of transportation have increased tourism dependence on non-renewable energy. There is no doubt that under current economic modes, greenhouse gas emissions from the tourism industry will continue to increase. Under a background of global warming, increasing energy consumption and excessive dependence on fossil fuels are increasing global carbon emissions, warming of the climate and slowing economic growth. It is clear that development of the tourism industry faces many challenges. Hospitality, as a pillar industry, has developed rapidly in China. According to The Statistical Bulletin of China s Starrelated Hotel in the Third Quarter of 2014, up to the third quarter of 2014, there were 11 727 star hotels in China, among which 759 were five-star hotels, 2427 were fourstar hotels, 5659 were three-star hotels, 2748 were twostar hotels and 134 were one-star hotels (National Tourism Administration Regulatory Division 2014). According to the National Tourism Bureau in 2008, the number of high star hotels (four-star and five-star hotels) achieved rapid growth, among which the number of rooms in five-star hotels increased 75.69% and the number of rooms infourstar hotels increased 33.28% (Fig. 1). In contrast, the number of rooms in one, two and three-star hotels decreased by 74.13%, 51.07% and 0.93% respectively (Fig. 1). These figures do not include non-star chain hotels which have also developed quickly in recent years. As at the third quarter of 2012, the four biggest economy hotel chains owned 4514 locations. The Home Inn, 7 Days Inn, Huazhu Hotel and Jinjiang Inn own 1682, 1236, 938 and 658 stores respectively (Zhao 2012). Hospitality has become the fastest growing part of the tourism industry, especially high-rated star hotels. From the perspective of the hotel industry, overall development and consumer psychology, we find that the development of hospitality in China pursues model of luxury, super and top. From a resource consumption and energy cost analysis perspective, the current mode, investment and economic output of China s hospitality shows the characteristic of high input, high consumption and high pollution (Gao et al. 2007). Hotel products and services are on a linear open horizontal system (Gao et al. 2007). The increasing revenue of hotels is realized though larger investment in energy, resources, service and carbon emission. Hotels satisfy customers various luxury requirements at the cost of huge energy and resource consumption. For example, a medium size three-star hotel usually consumes a large amount of energy every year equivalent to 1000 1400 tons of standard coal (t ce), and emits nearly 4000 tons of carbon dioxide, 70 tons of soot and 28 tons of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ). For four-star hotels, the average per square meter construction area consumes 100 200 kwh of electricity, which is nearly 20 times the energy consumption of ordinary civil buildings. Water consumption of hotel guests is 5 8 times of local residents (Sun 2003). 1.2 Literature review To deal with the practical issue of high energy consumption, researchers, industry and government have put much emphasis on exploring low carbon sustainable development modes for China s hospitality sector. However, current research on comprehensive energy consumption and energy-saving strategies in China is lagging. Through searching the Chinese periodicals database CNKI (http:// epub.cnki.net/kns/brief/default_result.aspx) we found 149 papers from 2005 to 2012, containing the keyword Hotel Energy Consumption Assessment that can be divided into two categories. Researchers in the first category emphasize carbon emissions and assessment at the national level (Chen and Wang 2012; Hao and Li 2013; Cong et al. 2013), and researchers in the second category examine economics and populations (Zhang 2010; Song and Lu 2009; Xu et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2010); both approaches have a sense of overview. Most research is based on the STIRPAT evaluation model, which evaluates factors like population, per capita GDP and energy intensity. This model is quite suitable in the carbon emission assessment for an industry Numerical statistics of star-rated hotels 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 5-star 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year 4-star 3-star 2-star 1-star Fig.1 Changes in star-rated hotels in China, 2008 2014.
166 Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.6 No.3, 2015 or the whole region. When we searched CNKI with the key words Hotel, Energy Consumption Assessment, Energysaving and Emission Reduction, we found that publication times can be divided into two periods. The first period is 1988 to 2009 when there were 148 related papers. Among them, there are a few papers in the 1980s and 1990s, but most of these papers are published in 2000 to 2009. The second period is from 2010 to 2012 when 73 papers were published. The average number of papers per year is 3.5 times of that in the first period. From a research perspective, these papers can be divided into three categories. The papers in the first category attempt to save energy and reduce emissions by renewing hotel management ideas (Hong 2010a, 2010b; Huang 2006); Promoting the Green Hotel in Hospitality is a good example. Papers in the second category put their emphasis on energy-saving equipment, facilities and building automation; they carry out classical cases and analyze the thermal parameters of hotels (Zhang and Zheng 2009). Papers in the third category are dealing with low carbon assessment system and its factors, which is rare. These papers tried to construct carbon assessment criterion (Wei et al. 2012; Wei et al. 2010). When we search the EBSCO database, we found that most papers focusing on energy-saving in the hospitality sector are published after 2005 and concentrate on hotel cost controlling and increasing hotel revenue (Zografakis et al. 2011). These papers research from a macro perspective, and focus at the market level, however, they are not profound. Recently, through academic exchange with the think tank Institut du Développement Durable et des Relations Internationales (IDDRI, Paris), which introduced the idea of Carbon Trading to the Europe Union, we found that the research and evaluation models of carbon trading are designed for heavy industry such as electric power, iron and steel and chemicals. The method most commonly used is economic levers, which means building up carbon trading mechanisms (Wang et al. 2011), and much has not been done on energysaving in hospitality. After several discussions, they show interest in energy-saving in hospitality and wanted to work together on this project. In general, there are few studies on energy consumption assessment models. To realize energy-savings and emission reductions in hospitality, an energy consumption assessment model that fits the characteristics of energy consumption in hospitality is needed. It is particularly important in the seven Chinese provinces and cities that have started carbon trading (DB31/T 551-2011, Shanghai). This research began with collecting and analyzing data, and then constructing an energy consumption assessment model and system. We focused on quantitative analysis to assess the energy consumption of various hotels accurately and track carbon emissions, carbon supple and carbon footprints of hotels. 2 Construction of the assessment model 2.1 Energy consumption assessment model for hospitality Currently, there are three decomposition analysis methods to study carbon emission factors: Index Decomposition Analysis (IDA) based on the industry level; Structure Decomposition Analysis (SDA) based on balance sheets; and Function Decomposition Analysis (FDA) based on nonparametric distance (Hao and Li 2013). To combine with the industry characteristic of standardization, specialization and simplification, we used the IDA and SDA methods to construct the comprehensive energy consumption model for hospitality. With reference to the general method issued by IPCC (Eggleston et al. 2006) we used standard coal to estimate the comprehensive energy consumption of different hotels, using Formula (1). n T = ( ae) i i (1) i= 1 where, T refers to the statistical comprehensive energy consumption of a hotel during the statistical period (t ce); E i refers to the quantity of the i kind of energy source being used during the statistical period, the unit of which is m 3 or ton; and a i is the coefficient of the i kind of energy source when it is converted into the standard coal. n is the number of the energy sources consumed by hotels. The implementation standards are GB/T2589-2008 (General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People s Republic of China 2008), DB31/T551-2011 (Shanghai Municipal Bureau of Quality and Technical Supervision 2012) and GB/T17167-2006 (General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People s Republic of China 2007). Hotel comprehensive energy consumption indicators are established as (i) the comprehensive energy consumption of star-rated hotels (tce); and (ii) the comparable unit energy consumption of star-rated hotels, the unit of which is kilogram of standard coal per square meter per year (kg ce m -2 y -1 ). If we assess the carbon emissions of hotels, which are downstream enterprises, the total carbon emission (TCO 2i ) is composed of the direct carbon emission (DCO 2i ) and the indirect carbon emission (ICO 2i ), as shown in Formula (2). TCO 2i = DCO 2i + ICO 2i (2) The main part of the direct carbon emission in hospitality is caused by equipment such as boilers, kitchens and laundries which burn natural gas, gasoline and other fossil fuels. The assessment model of direct carbon emission is shown in Formula (3). DCO 2t = (E tj C j R j O j 44/12) (3) j where, E tj refers to the amount of consumption of the j kind of energy source (m 3, t); C j refers to the carbon content of
HUANG Qi, et al.: Construction of the Comprehensive Energy Consumption Assessment Model for Star-rated Hotels and the Difference Analysis 167 unit calorific value of the j kind of energy source (t C TJ -1 ); R j refers to the low calorific value of j kinds of energy source (TJ m -3 or TJ t -1 ); and O j refers to the rate of oxidation (%). The main part of indirect carbon emissions in hospitality is carbon emissions from electricity, thermal energy and water purchased by hotels, as shown in Formula (4). ICO 2t = EL ti Y i (4) i where, EL ti refers to the amount of consumption of the j kind of energy source purchased by the hotel, such as electricity, water and thermal energy, the units of which are 10 4 kwh, t and GJ respectively; and Y i refers to the emission factor for the i kind of energy source (t CO 2 10-4 kwh -1, t CO 2 GJ -1 ). The value of Y i can be calculated with reference to the energy balance sheet issued by government and greenhouse gas inventories. We used default values throughout. 2.2 The definition of energy-saving and emission reduction in hospitality According to Energy Conservation Law of the People s Republic of China, energy-saving and emission reduction can be defined in a broad sense and narrow sense. Broadly speaking, energy-saving and emission reduction refers to saving raw materials and energy resources and reducing waste and harmful emissions. In a narrow sense, energysaving and emission reduction refers to saving energy resources and reducing harmful emissions. The energysaving and emission reductions mentioned in this paper fall within the narrow sense, which means hotels reduce the comprehensive energy consumption, direct and indirect carbon emission though energy consumption management and other energy-saving technology without affecting the comfort of guests. 3 Analysis of practical data 3.1 Data sources We collected and analyzed data from Eastern China, especially Shanghai. Up to January 2014, we have traced energy consumption data from 23 hotels, among which Table 1 Fifteen hotels comprehensive energy consumption data in eastern China. Star rating Number of hotels Years of data collection Remarks Five 2 5 6 Five 3 3 Five 3 1 2 Four 1 2 Three 1 4 Data are collected from a chain hotel with five branches Three 4 2 4 Three 1 2 Quasi three-star hotels there are nine four-star and five-star hotels and eight threestar hotels (including a chain hotel group). Among 17 hotels whose data we have collected, there are two hotels where data needs verification. The data for the remaining 15 hotels is shown in Table 1. The calculation and collection of data follows the General Principle for Equipping and Managing of the Measuring Instrument of Energy in Organization of Energy Using GB 17167-2006 and Handbook of Energy Statistics (National Bureau of Statistics of the People s Republic of China, Division of Energy, 2010). All instruments in the hotel meet the requirements of various standards. The protocol for data collection was (i) inspect all kinds of instruments in the field and define the collection range; (ii) correct and guide data collection with the engineering division in hotels; and (iii) check the data every 2 to 5 months. All data collected are first-hand, including all kinds of energy consumption data throughout the entire year. The data are all checked with the data inventory issued by the related government department in order to confirm validity of the data. All energy consumption data collected contains direct energy-consumption and indirect energy consumption, including fresh water, electricity, gas (natural gas and/or coal gas), vapor and oil. 3.2 Model calculation and analysis The analysis was carried out in three dimensions. First, we put our emphasis on collecting and analyzing energy consumption data collected in the last 4 to 5 years. Second, we analyzed the difference between hotels at different levels, mainly about level difference between the high-star hotels (four- and/or five-star hotels) and low-star hotels (two- and/or three-star hotels). Third, we analyzed various factors for carbon emissions in hospitality and determined the potential for energy-savings and emission reductions. The potential of energy-saving and emission reduction will be studied in three perspectives: (i) the energysaving reconstruction of hotels; (ii) energy consumption comparison between different hotels with the same starrated level; and (iii) energy consumption comparison between hotels of different star-ratings. The target of this study is to assess the potential for energy-saving across the whole industry. The comprehensive energy consumption data of a foreign investment five-star hotel, which has more than 300 rooms, is shown in Table 2. The equal value of the annual comprehensive energy consumption of the hotel in 6 years is 3505.96 t ce. The equal value of the annual carbon emission in 6 years is 9185.62 t CO 2e. This hotel is definitely a high energy consumption hotel. In 2008, this hotel reconstructed the electricity and HVAC system and the annual comprehensive energy consumption of that hotel has reduced about 4.1% (Fig. 2). The cumulative energy reduction reached 742.8 t ce, and comparable unit energy consumption declined from 63.97to 51.92 kg ce m -2 y -1,
168 Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.6 No.3, 2015 Table 2 Comprehensive energy consumption data of a five-star hotel in Eastern China, 2008 2013. Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 The equal value of carbon emission (t CO 2e ) 10327.25 9558.81 9151.48 8919.40 8775.74 8381.01 The equal value of comprehensive energy consumption (t ce) 3941.70 3648.40 3492.93 3404.35 3349.52 3198.86 The equal value of comparable comprehensive energy consumption per unit (kg ce m -2 y -1 ) 63.97 59.97 56.69 55.25 54.19 51.92 Table 3 Comprehensive energy consumption data of a three-star hotel in Shanghai in 2009 2013. Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 The equal value of carbon emission (t CO 2e ) 2640.65 2668.16 2432.59 2242.25 2103.83 The equal value of comprehensive energy consumption (t ce) 1007.88 1018.37 928.47 855.82 802.99 The equal value of comparable comprehensive energy consumption per unit (kg ce m -2 y -1 ) 43.82 44.28 40.36 37.21 34.91 which is less than the advanced comparative value 55 kg ce m -2 y -1 (General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People s Republic of China 2008). The effect of the energy-saving reconstruction is huge. What needs to be pointed out is the energysaving reconstruct does not reduce comfort for customers. According to the latest statistics, the hotel had an increase in revenue in 2013 and this example shows that high star hotels have energy-saving and emission reduction potential. The comprehensive energy consumption data of a state owned three-star hotel, which has more than 160 rooms, is shown in Table 3. The annual comprehensive energy consumption of the hotel in 5 years is 922.71 t ce. The annual carbon emission is 2417.49 t CO 2e. The hotel adopted the air source heat pump in 2011 and shut down the gas boiler (natural gas). The experimental data shows that the carbon emissions in 2012 reduced 190.34 t CO 2e compared to carbon emissions in 2011 (the reconstruction took place in the middle of 2011). The comparable unit energy consumption reduced to 37.21 kg ce m -2 y -1, which is 13.1% lower than three years ago. This example shows that three-star hotels have the potential for energy-savings and emissions reductions, especially for hotels using gas boilers (most of the hotels in Shanghai still use gas boilers). From different levels in hospitality, the two most active levels nowadays are the high-star hotel level and the economic hotel level. However, one-, two- and threestar hotels have the greatest energy consumption because they are the most numerous. Using the identical model and standard, we also assessed the energy consumption of a large number of five- and three-star hotels. (1)The engineering systems in five-star hotels are different from hotels with three stars (e.g. five-star hotels usually use 4-pipe HVAC systems). However, there are still differences between five-star hotels (Table 4). The comparable unit energy consumption of Hotel 1, Hotel 2 and Hotel 3 ranges from 46 57 kg ce m -2 y -1, and reached the advanced comparable value for five-star hotels ( 55 kg ce m -2 y -1 )(General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People s Republic of China 2008). These international brand hotels have invested in energy-saving programming and implementation. In contrast, the comparable unit energy consumption of Hotel 5 and Hotel 6 operated by the domestic management team reached 73 74 kg ce m -2 y -1. Although, the comparable unit energy consumption of these hotels reached the reasonable Comprehensive energy consumption (t ce) 4000.0 3900.0 3800.0 3700.0 3600.0 3500.0 3400.0 3300.0 3200.0 3100.0 3000.0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Year Fig. 2 Comprehensive energy consumption of a five-star hotel in Eastern China, 2008 2013. Table 4 Comparable comprehensive energy consumption per building area of five-star hotels in Eastern China (annual average). Hotel Theannual comparable unit energy consumption (kg ce m -2 y -1 ) Remarks Hotel 1 46.65 Statics in 3 years Hotel 2 52.25 Statics in 3 years Hotel 3 57.00 Statics in 6 years Hotel 4 65.36 Statics in 2 years Hotel 5 73.26 Statics in 3 years Hotel 6 73.81 Statics in 5 years
HUANG Qi, et al.: Construction of the Comprehensive Energy Consumption Assessment Model for Star-rated Hotels and the Difference Analysis 169 value for five-star hotels ( 77 kg ce m -2 y -1 ), there are still great distances of advanced value for five-star hotels ( 55 kg ce m -2 y -1 ). (2) We calculated and assessed the comprehensive energy consumption of some three-star hotels in Shanghai and Eastern China (Table 5). The comparable unit energy consumption value of Hotel 7, Hotel 8 and Hotel 9, which are three-star hotels and 10 to 20 years old, ranged from 57.61 to 63.25 kg ce m -2 y -1. These values exceed the reasonable value of three-star hotels ( 53 kg ce m -2 y -1 ). Most of the three-star hotels are state-owned, and there is little investment in energy-saving systems and most of the equipment isold. These factors contribute to the high energy consumption of these hotels. Hotel 10 is also a stateowned hotel, however this hotel has invested a lot in the reconstruction of the energy-saving system. As a result, the comparable energy consumption of that hotel is 40.12 kg ce m -2 y -1, and has reached the advanced value of a three-star hotel ( 41 kg ce m -2 y -1 ). From this example, we conclude that three-star hotels have the potential to save energy. Many factors of hotel energy consumption are immeasurable, such as room occupy rates, table occupy rates, and changes in climatic and environmental factors. To solve this problem, we simplified complicated and related factors into measurable and controllable factors. Through field investigation and literature research, we found several classification methods for these main factors. Classifying the main factors according to the type of energy is electricity, natural gas and/or coal gas, oil and new water. The proportion of energy consumption of a five-star hotel in three years is shown in Fig. 3. The main factor can be divided into direct emissions and indirect emissions. For direct emissions, it includes electricity and vapor. Indirect emissions refers to natural gas and new water. The energy proportion of energy consumption of this classification method is shown in Fig. 4. From Fig. 4, we find that new water occupies a very small proportion of about 0.34% to 0.37; electricity occupies the highest proportion of 69.22% to 70.90%; steam occupies 25.48 % to 27.37%; and natural gas occupies 3.25% to 3.84%. The proportion of all kinds Table 5 Comparable comprehensive energy consumption per building area of three-star hotels in Eastern China (annual average). Hotel Theannual comparable unit energy consumption (kg ce m -2 y -1 ) Remarks Hotel 7 63.25 Statics in 5 years Hotel 8 58.51 Statics in 3 years Hotel 9 57.61 Statics in 3 years Hotel 10 40.12 Statics in 5 years of energy source is stable in the last five years. These factors consist of measurable and controllable factors of energy consumption. We can transfer these factors into the assessment model, and factors will be of great importance in the assessment of carbon emissions and/or carbon footprints. Therefore, the most important energy-saving perspective is electricity. Through model calculation and data verification, hotels can determine energy-saving and emissions reduction though comparison overtime, before and after energy reconstruction, and between different hotels. Low star-rated hotels have greater energy-saving potential. 4 Conclusions We developed a carbon emission assessment model though analysis of the condition of energy-saving and emission reductions. The model is based on hospitality characteristics and first hand comprehensive energy consumption. This model lays a firm foundation for energy-savings and emissions reduction, and carbon trading. The model provides a reference for decision-making departments in hospitality. Through model calculation, we found the energy-saving and emission reduction strategy for different levels of hotels. For high star-rated hotels, the promotion of energysaving and emission technology is necessary. The reduction of comprehensive energy consumption of a five-star hotel in Eastern China will attract more hotels to adopt new 43.70% 0.42% 55.88% Electric power (t ce) Natural gas (t ce) Water (t ce) Fig. 3 Proportions of various types of energy consumption in the overall energy consumption of a three-star hotel in Shanghai in 2009 2011 (annual average). Year 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 The proportion of energy consumpution (%) 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% Steam (t ce) Natural gas (t ce) Electric power (t ce) Water (t ce) Fig. 4 Proportions of various types of energy consumption in the overall energy consumption of a five-star hotel in Eastern China in 2008 2013.
170 Journal of Resources and Ecology Vol.6 No.3, 2015 technology. For low star-rated hotels, they can save energy and reduce emissions through energy-saving reconstruction to reduce the comparable unit building area energy consumption. The direct carbon emission factors and indirect carbon emission factors are ranked as follows: electricity, vapor and gas. The ranking of carbon emission factors can help hotels figure a clear way to save energy and reduce emissions. We suggest that related departments should take action to control malignant competition of high star-rated hotels. For example, the number of high star-rated hotels has increased by 237 in 2013 (National Tourism Administration Regulatory Division 2014; Zhao 2012), and the number of five-star hotels has increased 10.4% compared to 2012. This research has laid a firm foundation for building a Monitoring Reporting Verification (MRV) for the hospitality sector. 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HUANG Qi, et al.: Construction of the Comprehensive Energy Consumption Assessment Model for Star-rated Hotels and the Difference Analysis 171 星级酒店综合能耗测评模型构建及差异分析 黄崎 1, 康建成 2 3, 黄晨皓 1 上海师范大学旅游学院, 上海 201418; 2 上海师范大学城市生态与环境研究中心, 上海 200234; 3 同济大学机械与能源工程学院, 上海 201804 摘要 : 我国星级酒店发展迅速, 近几年星级酒店统计数量在 12000 家左右, 其中高星级酒店数量提升较快 行业发展的瓶颈之一就是巨大的能耗与碳排放, 但对酒店企业综合能耗测评与评估研究相对滞后 通过对上海等地区酒店长达 6 年多的第一手综合能耗数据采集, 并参照 IPCC 推荐的国际通用法则和国内相关标准, 采用分解分析法, 建立了具有酒店行业特征的综合能耗和碳排放测评模型 研究结果表明 : 采集的四 五星级酒店中可比单位建筑能耗最高达到 73.26 kg ce m -2 y -1, 华东某五星级酒店通过节能技改, 连续 6 年年均综合能耗下降 4.1%; 使可比单位建筑能耗达到小于等于 55 kg ce m -2 y -1 的先进比拟值 在调研的二 三星级酒店中, 大部分酒店的可比单位建筑能耗数值还远高于 53 kg ce m -2 y -1 的合理值 ; 该类型酒店在我国数量多, 具有很大的节能减排潜力 ; 从能耗影响因素分析, 统计数据表明, 酒店使用电力产生的间接碳排放是第一影响因素 ; 在能源使用结构上, 酒店的暖通空调 (HVAC) 占综合能耗比重最高 本研究对酒店业节能减排实施方案的具备测评作用, 同时为该行业碳足迹的可测 可控和可评估提供了基础性研究 关键词 : 测评模型 ; 碳排放 ; 能耗分解 ; 星级酒店 ; 节能潜力