Chapter 4 Motivating self and others Defining Motivation Define motivation - The internal and external forces that lead an individual to work toward a goal o Intensity is how hard a person tries o Persistence is how long a person can maintain their efforts Motivation is not a personality trait It is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation The biggest thing to realize is that motivation depends both on the individual and the situation the individual is in Theory X and Theory Y Define Theory X - The assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. (Extrinsically motivated) Define Theory Y - The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. (Intrinsically motivated) Neither of these fully account for human behaviour Define Intrinsic Motivators - A person s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction. o Eg driving your mom to work Define Extrinsic Motivators Motivation that comes from outside the person and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards. o Eg your brother buying you lunch for driving him Reflect situations not personalities Manager views on whether or not employees are intrinsically/extrinsically motivated depends on culture o NA, extrinsic Give good reviews to intrinsically motivated Needs Theories of Motivation Main theories of motivation falls into two categories 1. Needs theories 2. Process theories Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Every person has a hierarchy of 5 needs: 1. Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. 2. Safety. Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. 3. Social. Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. 4. Esteem. Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
5. Self-actualization. )ncludes growth, achieving one s potential, and selffulfillment. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. When one is full, you need to attempt to fill another to keep them motivated o Research has been conducted to try to support his claim but there is little supportive evidence ERG Theory A revised-need hierarchy theory that emphasizes the core needs of existence, relatedness, and growth Differs from Maslow s theory: 1. More than one level at the same time 2. When a higher level is satisfied, lower level need increases McClelland s Theory of Needs Define McClelland s Theory - Achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation. o Need for achievement. The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. o Need for power. The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. do not make good managers o Need for affiliation. The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Motivation-Hygiene Theory Intrinsic factors lead to job satisfaction (Motivators) Extrinsic factors lead to job dissatisfaction (Hygiene) Herzberg concluded that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, it is no satisfaction o Similarly, the opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction Summarizing Needs theories All individuals have needs that need to be satisfied Needs Theories in the Workplace Customize rewards to people in order to keep all employees motivated
Process Theories of Motivation Focuses on how someone can be set about motivating another individual Focusing on these process theories may help you motivate others or yourself Expectancy Theory Define expectancy theory - The theory that individuals are motivated based upon their evaluation of whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to them. Effort-Performance Relationship Commonly called expectancy -the belief that effort is related to performance o In general an employees expectancy is influenced by the following: 1. Self-esteem 2. Previous success 3. Help from supervisors and subordinates 4. Information 5. Proper materials and equipment Performance-Rewards Relationship Commonly called instrumentality - The belief that performance is related to rewards o Ranges from -1 to +1 Rewards Personal Goals Relationship Commonly called valence the value or importance an individual places on a reward (also ranges from -1 to +1) Expectancy theory in the Workplace Mangers can take steps to improve expectance, instrumentality and valence Goal-Setting Theory Define goal what an individual is trying to accomplish o Object or aim of an action How does Goal Setting Motivate? In order for goals to be effective they should be SMART: o Specific: Individuals know exactly what is to be achieved. o Measurable: The goals proposed can be tracked and reviewed. o Attainable: The goals, even if difficult, are reasonable and achievable. o Results-oriented: The goals should support the vision of the organization. o Time-bound: The goals are to be achieved within a stated time.
Contingency Factors in Goal Setting Employees increase/decrease their goals based on whether they get positive or negative feedback Define self-efficacy an individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task Four other factors have been found to influence the goals-performance relationship: 1. Goal commitment 2. Adequate self-efficacy 3. Task characteristics 4. National culture Overall conclusion: intensions are a potent motivating force o Can lead to higher performance Equity Theory Define Equity Theory - Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities o If the ratio is perceived to be equal, the state of equity is said to exist o Eg. Spending 6 hrs more on a paper than someone else, each getting the same grade What Happens When We Feel Treated Inequitably? o Change inputs o Change outputs o Adjust perceptions of self o Adjust perception of others o Choose a different referent o Leave the field Equity is not equality o Equity tells us that people who perform better should get better rewards o Equity theory has been generally supported However realize that some people do not care how their rewards compare to others, therefore equity theory would not apply to them Equity Theory in the Workplace Not just focused on pay Fair Process and Treatment
Historically equity theory focused on distributive justice Define Distributive Justice The perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. o Greater influence on employee satisfaction Define procedural justice The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Define interactional justice The quality of the interpersonal treatment received from a manager. o These two influence organization commitment more Cognitive Evaluation Theory Define cognitive evaluation theory - Offering extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) for work effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person s motivation Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Rewards The two are not independent o Inversely related o Eg driving your friend vs. a taxi. If your friend paid you it would diminish you feeling good about driving them REASONING is that a person feels a loss of control when they are being rewarded by external sources Increasing Intrinsic Motivation key rewards that increase an individual s intrinsic motivation: 1. Sense of choice 2. Sense of competence 3. Sense of meaningless 4. Sense of progress Similarly there are 4 sets of behaviors managers can use to create intrinsic rewards for their employees:
Creating a Motivating Workplace: Rewards and Job Redesign One of the incentives organizations use to motivate individuals is to create a motivating workplace Employee recognition: Showing people that they matter Often and consistently o Birthdays, anniversaries with the company, dinners for those visiting from out of town Variable-Pay Program: Improving Productivity Define variable-pay programs Reward programs in which a portion of an employee s pay is based on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance (80% of US companies) Some are rewards for when your group does well, individual rewards or even company wide rewards Different because pay is not just bases on time but also results o Annual earnings will fluctuate annually based on performance Individual-Based Incentives Piece-Rate wages unit pay for each unit of completed production Bonuses improve performances, can be used as part of a retention strategy Group-Based Incentives Gainsharing formula based, based on groups productivity improvement o Focuses on productivity rather than profits Organizational-Based Incentives Profit-Sharing Plans predetermined formula, stocks or cash o Past dependent Stock Options and Employee Stock Ownership Plans company established benefit plan where employees acquire stock as part of their benefits Linking Productivity-Related Incentives to Motivation Theories Mixed findings since research contains one time company cases in comparison to the ongoing methodology Pay for performance may be more successful when organizations are more transparent about financial conditions What About Teamwork? Individual-based incentives hurt cooperation in the workplace o Also speeds up work and puts too much stress on older workers who can t keep up If organizations need employees to act as a team, the emphasis needs to be placed on team-based rewards Motivating beyond Productivity Some activities should merit additional compensation. Such as: o Commission beyond sales IE customer satisfaction/sales team outcomes o Leadership effectiveness employee satisfaction, how they manage o New goals contribute to organizational goals IE customer satisfaction, cycle time, quality
o Knowledge workers in teams performance or professionals that work on a team o Competency and/or skills abstract knowledge IE technology, social skills, customer service Define skill-based pay - Pay based on how many skills an employee has or how many jobs he or she can do. Designing Motivating Jobs Define job characteristics model (JCM) - A model that identifies five core job dimensions and their relationship to personal and work outcomes. Define job enrichment - The vertical expansion of jobs. Core job Dimensions Any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: o Skill variety o Task identity o Task significance o Autonomy o Feedback Critical Psychological States o Experienced meaningfulness o Experienced responsibility for outcomes o Knowledge of the actual results
The model suggests that if employees feel more of these states, they will have greater motivation, performance, and satisfaction Evaluating the Use of Rewards in the workplace Managers should be aware that giving rewards send signals in the workplace o Different signals for different cultures o Rewards may not be essential Beware the Signals that Rewards Send Behavior that we want to see must be rewarded o Eg bonus for perfect attendance Common management reward follies: Three major obstacles to ending these follies: 1. Individuals are unable to break out of old ways of thinking about reward and recognition practices 2. Organizations often do not look at the big picture of their performance system 3. Both management and shareholders often focus on short-term results Can We Just Eliminate Rewards? The desire to do something much less do it well simply cannot be imposed o Must set up conditions that optimize the chances of developing their interest Creating a motivating Work environment Abolish incentive pay pay everyone well and fairly. They will not worry about their paycheques and the goals of their organization will be their main goal Reevaluate evaluation performance should not be tied to compensation. Allow evaluations be more like a conversation of ideas. Will not confuse feedback with rewards
Create authentic motivation help your employees do better, listen to their ideas and concerns and provide plenty of positive and constructive feedback Support collaboration provide necessary supports for a well structured team Pay attention to content keep them motivated by giving new and changing opportunities, sharing interest, working together, keeping things interesting Provide choice free to do things the way they choose, do not focus on rewards so no extrinsic motivators