Socetal Dmenson of Energy Consumpton Explorng Envronmental Inequalty n Chna Guyng Cao 1, Junlan Gao 2, Mng Ren 2, Tatana Ermoleva 1, Xangyang Xu 2 & Elena Rovenskaya 1 1 Internatonal Insttute for Appled System Analyss, Laxenburg, Austra 2 Center for Resources and Envronment Polcy Research, School of Management, Chna Unversty of Mnng and Technology, Bejng, Chna Correspondence: Guyng Cao, Internatonal Insttute for Appled System Analyss, Laxenburg, Austra. Receved: November 15, 2017 Accepted: December 4, 2017 Onlne Publshed: December 17, 2017 do:10.5430/rwe.v8n2p66 URL: https://do.org/10.5430/rwe.v8n2p66 Abstract From the socal-ecologcal nexus perspectve, envronmental nequalty s embedded n ts root of socal problem arsng from ncome nequalty. The urgent global challenges of sustanablty and equty must be addressed together (IPCC2011). Ths paper ntends to explore the lnk between house ncome nequalty and envronmental vulnerablty n Rural of Chna. In the process of rural to urban domnated economy transformaton, socal structures are changng, and ecosystems are facng stress. Gven Chna's dynamc economc and envronmental stuaton, we am to provde an assessment n the nequalty of energy use and envronmental effects n two dfferent systems of urban and rural regon n Chna. The paper deals wth three questons: 1. how has household expendture lnked wth the energy use drectly and ndrectly; 2. how has Chna challenged by nequaltes between rural and urban household on the resdental energy consumpton; 3. how hgh s the emsson estmated n the rural resdental energy use? The analyss results ndcate obvously that almost half rural famly stll use no-commercal energy and thus coal s the man commercal energy sources; the per captal CO 2 emssons of rural regon s much hgher than urban regon, whch s drven by low energy effcency and less advanced publc nfrastructure. It address the equty ssues that polcy should focus on energy affordablty and promotng a transton away from bomass to other modern energy sources n rural Chna. In the paper, the nput-output table s employed for accountng the ndrect resdental energy use and emssons, whch s assocated wth the eght sectors of household expendture. The data sources are from varous household serveres and energy statstcs n the perod of 1990 to 2016. Keywords: envronmental nequalty, energy consumpton, CO 2 msson, nput-output table, rural/urban household 1. Introducton Energy s an essental component of economc development, and decsons and practces of energy sector wll play a central role n determnng the sustanablty of development n every country and regon. At the natonal and nternatonal levels, energy and envronmental polces are beng shaped n response to sustanablty development. These nclude mprovng the energy effcency of transport and power generaton; fnancng the expanson of the electrcty, ol, and gas ndustres; addressng global warmng and reducng polluton caused by fossl fuels. An equally mportant but often been neglected aspect of energy producton and use s the lack of access for rural populatons to affordable modern energy sources, such as electrcty, lqud fuels, and modern bomass. In developng countres, ths stuaton can have serous socal, economc, and envronmental consequences (Douglas & Wllem, 1996). In recent energy management lteratures, there s a growng nterest n socal dmenson of energy. Some scholars call for a new approach for energy polcy, whch contrbute to an extended consderaton of technology and cost, and encompass the broader socetal dmensons of energy change. Clark A. Mller (Mller, 2013) argued, n the process of energy transformaton, three crtcal ntersectng aspects should be addressed: the frst one s the dea of energy nfrastructures, whch energy systems are at once relatvely hdden from publc scrutny and yet deeply structurng of socal and economc arrangements that can stfle alternatves wthout our realzng? The second one s the dea of energy epstemc. Who knows about energy systems, what and how do they know, and whose knowledge counts n governng and reshapng energy futures? The thrd one s the dea of energy justce, t means to mplement a just energy transformaton that wll nether perpetuate the exstng negatve mpacts of energy producton and use nor Publshed by Scedu Press 66 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
create new ones. Regardng to the energy justce, furthermore, Dara O Rourke1 and Sarah Connolly (Dara & Sarah, 2003) ndcated, t s energy systems often create nequaltes n the dstrbutons of harms and benefts, the dangerous pollutants assocated wth energy are often concentrated n locatons or groups wth lttle wealth or poltcal power. In the annual report (IPCC, 2011), wth an overvew of the urgent global challenges of sustanablty and equty, IPCC ndcated that the urgent global challenges of sustanablty and equty must be addressed together. It s possble to envson an evoluton toward equtable and sustanable development, ts underlyng determnants are also deeply embedded n exstng socetal patterns that are unsustanable and hghly nertal. A useful set of determnants from whch to examne the prospects for and mpedments to SD and equty are: the legacy of development relatons; governance and poltcal economy; populaton and demography; values and behavor; human and socal captal; technology; natural resource endowments; and fnance and nvestment. Energy nequaltes often fnd a reflecton n ncome nequaltes and regonal nequaltes n the process of ndustral transton of developng countres. The deepenng dspartes and energy nequaltes may lead to further dsempowerment of those who are already at a dsadvantage and greater socal unrest n the future. Ths paper, we hghlght on the Chna case wth aspect of energy nequalty between rural and urban at the aggregated household level. It ntends to explore the lnk between household ncome nequalty and envronmental vulnerablty n Urban and Rural of Chna, we am to provde an assessment and comparson n the energy nequaltes and envronmental effects n two dfferent systems of urban and rural regon n Chna. Addressng the followng questons: 1.How has household expendture lnked wth the energy use drectly and ndrectly; 2. How has Chna challenged by nequaltes between rural and urban household on the resdental energy consumpton; 3. How hgh s the emsson estmated n the rural resdental energy use? 4. What should the proper polcy response for envronmental nequalty n rural regon wth a sustanable manner. In the analyss, the nput-output table s employed for accountng the ndrect resdental energy use and resdental emssons, whch s assocated wth the eght sectors of rural household expendture. The data sources are varous household serveres and energy statstcs from 1990 to 2015. The paper s organzed as follows. Followng the ntroducton, secton 2 exposes the trend of household ncome and resdental energy consumpton; secton 3 estmates emsson mpact of rural resdental energy use n comparng wth urban household energy; secton 4 Concluson - rural sustanable energy consumpton 2. Household ncome and Resdental Energy Consumpton 2.1 Urban and Rural Gap n Income and Expendture Durng the past three decades Chna s economc growth has been among the fastest n the world. At the same tme the country experenced one of the fastest ncreasng n ncome and wealth nequalty countres n the world. The ncome gap between urban households and rural households ncreased sgnfcantly from 1990s, as shown n Fgure 1 and table1. Urban households spent 21392 Yuan (2.32 tmes) more than rural households and urban households receved 31195 Yun (2.73 tmes) more n yearly ncome than rural households n 2015. Ths urban rural ncome gap has played an ncreasngly mportant role n ncome nequalty n Chna as a whole. Fgure 1. Rato of real urban to real rural per capta ncome, 1978 2012 Publshed by Scedu Press 67 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
The Table 1 hghlghts mportant dfferences between consumer expendtures by rural and urban households n 2015: Table 1. Urban and rural household ncome and expendture 2015 (per capta), Yuan 2015 urban rural U/R Per capta dsposable ncome 31195 11422 2.73 Per capta consumpton expendtures 21392 9223 2.32 Per capta food tobacco expendtures 6360 3048 2.09 Per capta clothng expendtures 1701 550 3.09 Per capta expendtures 4726 1926 2.45 Per capta expendtures for goods and servces 1306 546 2.39 Per capta expendtures for transportaton and communcaton 2895 1163 2.49 Per capta expendtures for educaton culture, and entertanment 2383 969 2.46 Per capta expendtures for health care 1443 846 1.71 Per capta expendtures for other goods and servces 578 174 3.32 Sources: 2016 statstcs year book 2.2 The Lnkage of Expendture Types, Energy Resources and Energy Emsson n Household Wth the respect of household expendture and energy consumpton, the drect and ndrect CO 2 emsson from household consumpton accounted about 40% of total carbon emssons from prmary energy utlzaton n Chna from 1990 to 2012. The ncrease of household consumpton per capta, resdental buldng, and dramatc ncreasng car users all contrbute to an ncrease of ndrect carbon emssons, whch are derved by the ncreasng ncome of per captal of both rural and urban regon. Consequently, the expendture of household has promoted household energy consumpton, hence s of great sgnfcance for CO 2 emsson. The lnkage of expendture-energy use-emsson n household s llustrated n the Fgure 2. Fgure 2, shows the framework how the 8 type of tems of household expendture are assocated wth major types of energy, n partcular to food, housng consumpton, transportaton, and communcaton have strongly effected the energy use. From Fgure 2 we see that resdental energy use ncludes drect energy use and ndrect energy use. The drect energy use s relatve to the energy whch the resdent buy and consume drectly for cook, heat, lght, travel, etc.; the ndrect energy use s relatve to the energy whch caused durng the lfecycle of the commodtes (Renders, Vrnger & Blok, 2003). The producton, processng, supply, dsposal of commodtes wll lead to extensve energy consumpton, so the resdent expendture on commodtes wll ndrectly brng out energy use (EIA, 1995). Publshed by Scedu Press 68 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
I n d r e c t c o n s u m p t o n d r e c t c o n s u m p t o n F o o d R e l a t v e n d u s t r y I n p u t - O u t p u t T a b l e C o a l B o g a s C l o t h n g H e a t n g Coal gas H o u s n g c o n s u m p t o n House Area L g h t n g S t r a w H o u s e h o l d e q u p m e n t a n d s e r v c e c o n s u m p t o n H e a t E l e c t r c t y F r e w o o d M e d c n e a n d m e d c a l s e r v c e s T r a n s p o r t a n d c o m m u n c a t o n C o m m u n c a t on tools V e h c l e N a t u r a l G a s O l p r o d u c t o n c u l t u r a l, e d u c a t o n a n d e n t e r t a n m e n t L q u e f e d P e t r o l e u m G a s O t h e r g o o d s and servces E x p e n d t u r e s t r u c t u r e C o m m e r c a l E n e r g y N o n - c o m m e r c a l E n e r g y H g h n c o m e L o w n c o m e I n c o m e Fgure 2. The relatonshp between per captal ncome, household expendture and energy use 2.3 Rural and Urban Resdental Energy Use The ncrease of household consumpton per capta has provded resdents wth more optons n how they spend on transportaton as well as housng, consequently dramatc ncrease energy use, whch all contrbute to an ncrease of drect and ndrect carbon emssons. 2.3.1 Indrect Energy Use In 2011, ndrect Energy used by rural households has reached 378.41mllons ton coal equvalent, takng account of 10.87% n the total energy use of Chna. Compared wth 1990, t was 279.49 mllon ton coal equvalent, takng account 30.14%. Whle urban household shared the ndrect energy use wth 28.10% n the total energy use n 2011, Publshed by Scedu Press 69 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 http://rwe.scedupress.com Research n World Economy Vol. 8, No. 2; 2017 the number was 23.90 % n 1990, the rural resdental energy use was just 1/3 of ts urban household n 2011. 2.3.2 Drect Energy Use and Energy Structure From 1990 to 2011, drect rural household energy use has become more dversfed and commercalzed. The use of electrcty, petroleum products, and lquefed petroleum gas have been gradually ncreased (see Fgure 3). In the structure of drect rural resdental energy use, coal s stll the man commercal energy source, although t was reduced from 98.0% to 95.5% n sharng of total resdental energy use comparng 1990 and 2011. The share of the electrcty kept rsng, whch has reached 28.38% n 2011, whch s a rse by nearly 6 tmes from 1990. In 2011, 10.30% of the total drect energy use s the ol producton, three tmes as much as n 1990. The lquefed petroleum gas s same as the ol has slghtly ncreased snce 1990s. Whle for urban household energy drect energy resources, the coal has been reduced from 95.38% n 1990 to 19.30, but the electrcty has been ncreased from 3% to 35.42 n total energy resdental share durng the same perod. Rural Resdental Drect Enery Use 1990-2011 10,000 Tons 9000.00 8000.00 7000.00 6000.00 5000.00 4000.00 3000.00 2000.00 1000.00 0.00 coal lquefed petroleum gas ol electrcty Fgure 3. Trend of rural resdental drect energy use 1990-2011 Sources: Energy Balance Table from Energy Statstc Yearbook 1991-2012 2.3.3 Commercal Energy and Non-commercal Energy Other mportant aspect s a change of sharng the commercal and non-commercal Energy n terms of household energy sources, the fgure 4 ndcates the rural household energy sources n share of the commercal energy s stable around 40% (see fg.4). The use of non-commercal energy such as straw and frewood s tll major rural resdental energy resource, the proporton of no-commercal energy by rural household has been keep consstent wth sharng of 43% n total energy use over the last 20 years. Because of the tradtonal use of non-commercal energy drect burnng, the non-commercal energy effcency s lower than the commercal energy. Coal s stll the man type of commercal energy use for rural resdent, whch s used for cookng and heatng. Publshed by Scedu Press 70 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 The share of the commercal and non-commercal energy use% Commercal Energy Non-commercal Energy Fgure 4. Rural commercal and non-commercal energy structure change 1991-2007 Sources: Energy Balance Table from Energy Statstc Yearbook 1991-2012 2.3.4 Per Captal Energy Use Per capta rural household energy use reached 159.49 Kg coal equvalent, whle n urban regon, per capta of urban household energy use was 231.94 kg coal equvalent n 2011. Although urban household per captal energy has been much hgher than rural regon, urban energy use s effcent because rural resdents rely on low qualty energy. In terms of ncreasng rate, the annual ncreasng rate of rural per captal energy use s 2.74% from 1990 to 2011, the urban per captal annual ncreased rate has been lower than rural regon wth 2.25%. 3. Estmatng Envronmental Impact of Rural Resdental Energy Use The assessment ncludes drect and ndrect energy uses wth addressng on CO 2 emsson. 3.1. Methodology and Date 3.1.1 Drect Emsson Calculaton By usng 15 knds of household energy (physcal quantty) from the energy balance table of the Chnese Energy Statstcal Yearbooks from 1991-2012, we calculate the drect emsson. The formula (1) s for the drect emsson accountng: (1) dr CE CE E Where dr CE refers to the drect CO 2 emsson, refers to a type of household energy, CE refers to the emsson coeffcents of household energy, E refers to household energy. 3.1.2 Indrect Emsson Calculaton Input-output analyss s developed by Wassly Leontef (Wassly, 1936) has often been used for quantfyng the ndrect energy consumptons and emsson (Manfred, Mette & Claude, 2006; Maurzo, Alessandra & Sona, 2013; State Statstcal Bureau of Chna, 1991-2012). The accountng process are as follows: 1) To calculate the drect emsson ntensty based on the energy balance table and the nput value by the ndustral sectors, the formula s shown n (2); Publshed by Scedu Press 71 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
CI d t CE E O t t (2) WhereCI refers to the drect emsson ntensty of sector t, d t CE refers to the emsson coeffcents of energy, E t refers to the consumpton of energy n the sector t. 2) To calculate the cumulatve ntensty of carbon emsson The cumulatve carbon ntensty derved from formula (3): O t refers to the outputs of sector t. f d CI CI *(1 A) 1 (3) Where f CI refers the fnal carbon ntensfy matrx, d CI donates drect carbon ntensty whch are calculated as rato of the drect carbon to total nputs, A s the drect requrements matrx descrbng the relatonshp between all sectors of the economy. The nput output tables sectors were reclassfed nto 29 sectors n order to match the emsson ntensty results, whch obtaned from step 1). In ths step accountng, we gnored the nternatonal trade. In dealng wth the consstency between fve year nput & output table and the annual based expendture data, t s mportant to adjust the emsson ntensty wth an annual base. As the nput-output table ssues by the Chnese Statstcs offce only every fve years, whch are 1992, 1997, 2002, 2007, we use the lnear nterpolaton method to smooth the emsson ntensty for every year from 1990-2011, whch can help us to estmate the emsson wth an annual based. To account the rural resdental emsson by 8 types of rural household expendtures, we dstrbute the cumulatve ntensty of carbon emsson by 29 sectors nto the 8 types of rural household expendture. See Table 2. In dealng wth the mult-ndustral sectors whch are flled n one type of household expendture, for such case we use the weghted average method. Table 2. Combnng the ndustral sectors of the nput-output table wth 8 category of household expendture Expendture Item Food Clothng Housng Household equpment and servce consumpton Health care Transport and communcaton servces Cultural, educaton and entertanment Other goods and servces Related Sectors of nput-output tables Food manufacturng and tobacco processng ndustry; Accommodaton and caterng; Agrculture, forestry, anmal husbandry and fshery Textle; Garment leather down and Related products Non-metallc mneral products ndustry; Coal mnng and washng; Ol and gas exploraton ndustry; Gas producton and supply; Electrcty; Heat producton and supply ndustry; Water producton and supply ndustry Wood processng and furnture manufacturng; Fabrcated Metal Products Electrcal machnery and equpment manufacturng Medcal and pharmaceutcal products; General, specal equpment manufacturng ndustry Electrcal machnery and equpment manufacturng; Transportaton Equpment Manufacturng; Electronc and communcaton equpment manufacturng Petroleum processng and cokng; Transportaton, storage and postal servces Paper prntng and Educatonal and Sports Goods; Measurng Instruments and Offce Machnery Wholesale and retal trade; Other ndustres Publshed by Scedu Press 72 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 http://rwe.scedupress.com Research n World Economy Vol. 8, No. 2; 2017 3) To account the rural resdental ndrect emsson by the per captal and total rural populaton (4) nd f CE ( CI EN ) P Where nd CE ndcates the ndrect CO 2 emsson, refers to the knd of expendture tem, f CI refers to the fnal or cumulatve carbon ntensty of expendture tem, EN refers to expendture, P refers to the number of rural resdents. Due to the expendture data s based on the current prce, for the accountng the emsson, we adjusted the expendture (Value) based on the year of nput-output tables (1992, 1997, 2002, 2007). For example we should adjust the expendture n 2009 on the baselne of 2007 by CPI as to elmnate the factors of nflaton on the expendture data. 3.1.3 Data Sources All the analyss n ths paper s based on the avalable data from the Natonal Bureau of Statstcs of Chna n 1992, 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2016, so we analyse carbon emssons from household durng 1991 to 2011. The energy sectors nclude coal, ol and gas, petroleum products, electrcty, and heat. Energy consumpton data from 1990 to 2011 are taken from the Chna Energy Statstcal Yearbook (State Statstcal Bureau).The expendture of rural household data are taken from the rural household survey (1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, and for 2011 taken from the Chna statstcal Yearbook). The Rural populaton data and rural CPI are taken from Chna Statstcal Yearbook (1991-2016), Energy emsson coeffcents derved from the "Provncal Greenhouse Gas Inventory Preparaton Gude"(Chna NDRC, 2011). 3.2 Accountng Results - Rural Household Energy Emsson Due to the ncreased energy consumpton, the per capta drect energy emsson had a rse by more than 3 tmes (Fgure 5). As the mprovement of the lfe qualty n rural, more and more people choose to use electrcty to cook and heat, the annual ncrease rate of electrcty consumpton s 10.29% from 1990 to 2011, especally snce 2000, the annual ncrease rate s 13.57%. In 2012, the thermal power capacty take account for 71.5%, whch made the electrcty emsson factor s hgh, the electrcty emsson factor s 0.9805kg/Kwh. 45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 Rural Resdental Drect Emsson 1990-2011 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Annual Emsson(10,000 Tons) Per Capta Annual Emsson( Ton) Fgure 5. Rural resdental drect emsson and per captal emsson To control the emsson n rural regon, t s necessary to calculate the non-commercal energy emsson snce t s the Publshed by Scedu Press 73 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 http://rwe.scedupress.com Research n World Economy Vol. 8, No. 2; 2017 man energy and the man source of the emsson n rural Chna (see Fgure 6). The Fgure 7 tells that the non-commercal energy emsson has even ncreased snce 2002, whch requests the mtgaton soluton for control the emsson. 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 the Per Capta Commercal Energy Emsson and Non Commercal Energy Emsson,Ton Per Capta Commercal Energy Emsson Per Capta Non-Commercal Energy Emsson Fgure 6. The per capta commercal and non-commercal energy emsson The ndrect per capta emsson s much hgher than the drect emsson n rural. (See Fgure 7) The Fgure 8 ndcates that the ndrect per capta annual emsson has strongly ncreased snce 1995. 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Drect Per Capta Annual Emsson Indrect Per Capta Annual Emsson Fgure 7. The drect per capta emsson and the ndrect per captal emsson From the Fgure 8, we can see emsson from food and housng s the man source of the ndrect emsson. The general trend of food emssons s nverted U-shaped from 1990-2011, from 1990-2010 s ncreased by 22.81%, the emsson ntensty contrbuted -100.90%, and the expendture contrbuted 123.71%. Whle from 2000 to 2011, the number has decreased by 65.64%, the emsson ntensty contrbuted -185.52%, whle the expendture contrbuted 119.88%. That s to say from 1990 to 2000, the contrbuton of ncreased energy effcency ddn t offset the contrbuton of the ncreased expendture, but from 2000-2011, the ncrease energy effcency plays an mportant role on the decreased emsson from food. The emsson from housng has ncreased very fast n the last decades. From 1990 to 2000, t was ncreased by 39.03%, n whch the ncreased emsson ntensty contrbuted -99.75%, and the Publshed by Scedu Press 74 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
expendture contrbuted 138.79%. Whle from 2000 to 2011, t was ncreased by 96.28%, n whch the ncreased emsson ntensty contrbuted -122.40%, and the expendture contrbuted 218.68%. That s to say though the energy effcency has ncreased, but the expendture on housng was growng sharply from 1990 to 2011. Indrect Emsson by Type of expendture n 1990,2000,2011 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 other goods and servces Culture,educat on and entertanment Transport and communcaton servces Health care Household equpment and servces Housng Clothng Food 1990 2000 2011 Fgure 8. The ndrect emsson by type of expendture n 1990, 2010, 2011 4. Concluson - Rural Sustanable Energy Consumpton Ths paper s an ntal study on socetal dmenson of energy consumpton whch s from the nexus approach nexus of socal nequty, household energy use, and envronmental vulnerablty toward equtable and sustanable urbanzaton process. It stress that access to clear energy for the rural household and emsson control n rural regon should be ntegrated nto the cty cluster development plan n urbanzaton process. Ths study may have hgh relevant for other emergng economes n the developng world. Accordng to our result, t obvously recognzes the current patters of rural household energy resdental energy are drves for unsustanable trend, although t has been changed wth more sustanable manner over the last two decades. The results have explored the nterlnked the household ncome nequalty and envronmental nequalty & vulnerablty between rural and urban household. The hgh rural emsson and un-commercal energy resdental energy use, ts root of socal problem arsng from ncome nequalty and faled publc nfrastructure. From the energy emsson pont of vew, the effect of the decreasng emsson ntensty couldn t offset the ncreasng household expendture on ndrect emssons partcularly. The results ndcate that almost half rural famly stll use no-commercal energy and thus coal s the man commercal energy sources; the per captal CO2 emssons of rural regon s much hgher than urban regon, whch s drven by low energy effcency and less advanced publc nfrastructure. The man challenges for envronmental nequalty of the rural regon whch drven from our analyss results are as the flowng: 1) Stll n 2015 urban households spent 21392 Yuan (2.32 tmes) more than rural households; and urban households receved 31195 Yun (2.73 tmes) more n yearly ncome than rural households. Ths urban rural ncome gap has played an ncreasngly mportant role n ncome nequalty as well as for envronmental nequalty n Chna as a whole. 2) The use of non-commercal energy such as straw and frewood s tll major rural resdental energy resource, and the proporton of no-commercal energy by rural household has been keep consstent wth sharng of 43% n total energy use over last 20 years. Because of the tradtonal use of non-commercal energy drect burnng, the non-commercal energy effcency s lower than the commercal energy. Ths wll lead to the shortage of the energy n rural and ncrease of emssons. It s mperatve to change the non-commercal energy nto energy whch has hgh effcency and low emsson factor through some technology, such as the gasfcaton of the straw, straw power Publshed by Scedu Press 75 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
generaton. To promotng sustanablty and equty between urban and rural regon, the access to clear energy for rural populaton must be addressed, and the rural emsson control should be ntegrated nto the Chna cty cluster development plan, partcularly to reduce the non-commercal energy emsson n rural regon. Only ths urban/rural nclusve development manner can envson an evoluton toward equtable and sustanable development between rural-urban regons. 2) Even wthn the commercal energy source, per capta household use of electrcty, natural gas, coal gas, and lquefed petroleum gas s also lower than natonal levels. Ths suggests that demand for hgh-qualty energy sources has great potental for growth n the countrysde. Especally the electrcty, so to low the emsson factor of the electrcty s the man way to decrease the drect emsson. The hydro and solar energy s very rch n countrysde. The government should gve some polcy support and provde the fnancal support such as low prce and low tax for the development of the small-scale hydro and solar power n countrysde. In rural Chna Coal s stll the man type of commercal energy use, whch s used for cookng and heatng. The average thermal effcency of cookng stoves and heatng s relatvely low. To mprove the utlzaton effcency of the coal s the man way to decrease the consumpton of the coal and drect emsson. Under the crcumstances, more ntegrated and systemc approaches for reformatve cook stove programs need to be mplemented. Moreover, 60% of Chna s buldngs n rural areas are made from clay brcks whch have poor nsulatng qualtes, combned wth lack of the central heatng system, t wll requre more energy for heatng, Promotng effcent rural buldngs and the mplement of the central heatng system should be ntroduced. The polcy to promote the sustanable energy consumpton n rural Chna, our man consderaton wth addressng on two dmensons: 1) Polcy for reducng the envronment nequalty should focus on energy affordablty and promotng a transton away from bomass to other modern energy sources. Wth the rapd development of rural economc and urbanzaton, t s urgent to make shft from the hgh rato of coal consumpton and un-commercal energy to modern energy by enablng servces such as lghtng, heatng, transport, communcaton, and mechancal power. Improvng access to these servces n the rural areas of Chna remans a major challenge. The share of expense for household facltes and artcles n per capta consumpton of clean Energy n rural areas should be facltated n natonal energy polcy. 2) Promotng effcent rural buldngs and nfrastructure. Urbanzaton process emerges numerous envronmental problems, such as heavy traffc, ar polluton. Thus, one avalable choce s to promote the energy nfrastructure n rural areas and to advocate the use of clean cookng facltes wth hgher energy effcency. The buldng of Smart Grd wll be another wse choce for the access to modern energy servces n rural areas, whch helps to reduce the neffcency of electrcty supply by tradtonal power networks. It s most mportant to change the energy structure and mprove the energy effcency, such as to generate electrcty usng renewable technologes and to replace coal wth modern bomass energy for cookng and heatng, Stll 60% of Chna s buldngs are n rural areas, made from clay brcks whch have poor nsulatng qualtes and requre more energy to produce (UNDP, 2014). At present efforts to modernze rural practces are constraned by fnancal access and techncal capacty. There s great room for mandatory energy-effcent measures and reducng emsson to be ntroduced to buldngs. 3) Increasng farmers awareness of envronmental protecton It s not necessarly about consumng less; t s about consumng better more effcently, wth less rsk to people health and envronment n energy use related to the rural lfestyle. In rural area of Chna, tradtonal energy resources are usually used durng a long perod partly due to low educatonal level of farmers and weak awareness of envronment protecton. To reduce over-explotaton of bomass resources and optmzng the structure of energy consumpton, t s crucal to rse farmers awareness of envronmental protecton and acceptablty of advanced cook stove. References Alam, M., Sathaye, J., & Barnes, D. (1998). Urban household energy use n Inda: effcency and polcy mplcatons. Energy Polcy, 26(11), 885-891. https://do.org/10.1016/s0301-4215(98)00008-1 And, D. F. B., & Floor, W. M. (2003). Rural energy n developng countres: a challenge for economc development1. Socal Scence Electronc Publshng, 21(1), 497-530. Bn, S., & Dowlatabad, H. (2005). Consumer lfestyle approach to US energy use and the related CO 2 emssons. Energy Polcy, 33(2), 197-208. https://do.org/10.1016/s0301-4215(03)00210-6 Boxall, P. C., Chan, W. H., & Mcmllan, M. L. (2005). The mpact of ol and natural gas facltes on rural resdental property values: a spatal hedonc analyss. Workng Papers, 27(3), 248-269. https://do.org/10.1016/j.reseneeco.2004.11.003 Publshed by Scedu Press 76 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X
Campbell, B.M., S.J. Vermeulen, J.J. Mangono, & R. Mabugu. (2003). The energy transton n acton: Urban domestc fuel choces n a changng Zmbabwe. Energy Polcy, 31(6), 553-562. https://do.org/10.1016/s0301-4215(02)00098-8 Clark A. Mller, Alastar Iles, & Chrstopher F. Jones. (2013). The socal dmensons of energy transtons. Scence As Culture, 22(2), 135-148. https://do.org/10.1080/09505431.2013.786989 Heltberg, R., Arndt, T. C., & Sekhar, N. U. (2000). Fuelwood consumpton and forest degradaton: a household model for domestc energy substtuton n rural nda. Land Economcs, 76(2), 213-232. https://do.org/10.2307/3147225 Intergovernmental Panel on Clmate Change. (2011). Sustanable Development and Equty. Intergovernmental Panel on Clmate Change. Retreved from https://www.pcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/pcc_wg3_ar5_chapter4.pdf Leontef, W. (1936). Composte commodtes and the problem of ndex numbers. Econometrca, 4(1), 39-59. https://do.org/10.2307/1907120 Madubans, M., & Shackleton, C. M. (2007). Changes n fuelwood use and selecton followng electrfcaton n the bushbuckrdge lowveld, south afrca. Journal of Envronmental Management, 83(4), 416-26. https://do.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.03.014 Maurzo Cellura, Alessandra D Gang, Sona Longo, et al. (2013). An Italan nput output model for the assessment of energy and envronmental benefts arsng from retroft actons of buldngs. Energy and Buldngs, 62, 97-106. https://do.org/10.1016/j.enbuld.2013.02.056 Mller, C. (2012, May) Energy justce: Ensurng human dgnty n the post-carbon future. Caro Revew of Global Affars, 46 59. Mod, V., Mcdade, S., Lallement, D., Saghr, J., Mod, V., & Mcdade, S., et al. (2005). Energy servces for the Mllennum Development Goals. Natonal Development and Reform Commsson People's Republc of Chna. (2004). Intal Natonal Clmate Change Home Informaton Bulletn. Bejng: Chna Plannng Press. Natonal Development and Reform Commsson People's Republc of Chna Intal Natonal Clmate Change Home Informaton Bulletn. Chna Plannng Press, Bejng, Chna, 2004. O'Rourke, D., & Connolly, S. (2003). Just ol? the dstrbuton of envronmental and socal mpacts of ol producton and consumpton. Annual Revew of Envronment & Resources, 28(28), 587-617. https://do.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105617 Ouedraogo, B. (2006). Household energy preferences for cookng n urban ouagadougou, burkna faso. Energy Polcy, 34(18), 3787-3795. https://do.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2005.09.006 Renders, A.H.M.E., Vrnger, K., & Blok, K. (2003). The drect and ndrect energy requrement of households n the European Unon. Energy Polcy,31, 139 153. https://do.org/10.1016/s0301-4215(02)00019-8 Rchard Cowell, Gll Brstow, & Max Munday. (2011). Acceptance, acceptablty and envronmental justce: the role of communty benefts n wnd energy development. Journal of Envronmental Plannng & Management, 54(4), 539-557. https://do.org/10.1080/09640568.2010.521047 State Statstcal Bureau of Chna. (1991-2012). Chna energy statstcal yearbook 1991-2012. Bejng: Chna Statstcal Press. State Statstcal Bureau of Chna. (1991-2012). Chna statstcal yearbook. (1991-2012). Bejng: Chna Statstcal Press. State Statstcal Bureau of Chna. (2016). Chna statstcal yearbook Chna Natonal 2016. Bejng: Chna Statstcal Press. Sustanable Energy Authorty of Ireland. (2016). Emsson Factor from Sustanable Energy Authorty of Ireland. Retreved from http://www.sea.e/publcatons/statstcs_publcatons/emsson_factors/ U.S Energy Informaton Admnstraton, Voluntary Reportng of Greenhouse Gases Program. Retreved from http://www.ea.gov/oaf /1605/ee-factors.html UNDP N. Y. E. (2000). World energy assessment: energy and the challenge of sustanablty, 77(2), 436-438. Wang, MeCheng. (2006). A comparatve multvarate analyss of household energy requrements n australa, brazl, denmark, nda and japan. Energy, 31(2 3), 181-207. Publshed by Scedu Press 77 ISSN 1923-3981 E-ISSN 1923-399X