Motivation Huber: Chapter 23- pages 481-500 Principles of Nursing Administration NUR 462 April 2007 What is Motivation? Successfully motivating others is a challenge regardless of the task Inspiring others to work successfully are a work of leaders Motivation refers to forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. Direction an individual s choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives. Level the amount of effort a person puts forth. Persistence the length of time a person stays with a given action. 2 1
Categories of Motivation Theories Content theories. Focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill. Process theories. Focus on people s thought or cognitive processes. 3 Content Theories Motivation results from the individual s attempts to satisfy needs. People in general share a common set of needs that orient and energize them People are motivated to engage in behavior that will satisfy a need and thus reduce associated tension 4 2
Major Content Theories Maslow's Hierarchy of needs theory. Alderfer s Modified Need Theory (E.R.G theory). McClelland s Basic Needs Theory Each theory offers a slightly different view. 5 Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Self Actualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological Unsatisfied needs motivate, and follow a sequential hierarchy. The higher one moves up the scale, the more rewards or motivators move from external environment to internal need. Once a need is met it is not longer motivational. 6 Copyright Allyn & Bacon 2007 3
Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Physiological Needs Basic to survival Includes food, water, rest, shelter, and air No other need will serve as a basis for motivation until these needs are met Safety Needs Include security, stability, and structured environment, free from threats to one s existence 7 Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Social or Relational Needs Comprised of relationships where friendship, affection, and affiliation are present. Failure to satisfy these needs can adversely impact one s mental health. 8 4
Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Esteem Needs Include feelings of adequacy, competence, independence, confidence, appreciation, and recognition of others. Satisfaction of these needs leads to a feeling of selfconfidence and prestige. Self-actualization needs: Refers to the desire of individuals to achieve selffulfillment, to develop one s potential to the fullest, to fulfill one s life goal 9 Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs 10 5
Alderfer s Modified Need Hierarchy (E.R.G Theory) Adlerfer modified Maslow s theory developing three basic needs instead of five. If a higher level need is unsatisfied, the individual will regress to a desire to satisfy lower-level needs. Existence-Relatedness-Growth 11 Alderfer s Modified Need Hierarchy (E.R.G Theory) Existence needs Desire for physiological and material well-being Satisfied by material substance or conditions, corresponding closely to the physiological needs identified by Maslow Include food, shelter, pay, and a safe and secure environment Relatedness needs. Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Satisfied by communication, or exchange and interaction with other individuals. Growth needs. Desire for continued personal growth and development. Only fulfilled by strong personal involvement that fully utilizes one s skills, abilities, and creativity 12 6
Comparison of Content Theories 13 McClelland s Basic Needs Theory People have three basic needs in varying degrees: Need for Achievement Need for Power Need for Affiliation 14 7
McClelland s Basic Needs Theory Need for Achievement The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. These people look for responsibility, desire feedback about their performance, take calculated risks 15 McClelland s Basic Needs Theory Need for Power The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others. More interested in personal prestige and power than effective performance 16 8
McClelland s Basic Needs Theory Need for Affiliation The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others. Seek respect, avoid decisions or actions that oppose group norms More interested in high morale than productivity 17 Herzberg s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Also known as two-factor theory Two categories of needs: Hygiene or maintenance factors Relates to job environment Hygiene factors maintain satisfaction Motivation factors Relate to job content Motivation factors encourage superior performance 18 9
Herzberg s Motivation-Hygiene Theory Things that prevent dissatisfaction are not the same as things that create satisfaction. When people are dissatisfied [de-motivated] with their work it is usually because of discontent with environmental factors. He called these factors Hygiene Factors" because, at best, they prevent or minimize dissatisfaction, but do not give satisfaction - in the same way that good hygiene prevents threats to health but does not in itself give good health. "Motivating Factors" on the other hand, create job satisfaction and can motivate an individual to superior performance and effort. 19 Herzberg s Two-Factor Theory Negative feelings can become a source of dissatisfaction 20 10
Comparison of Content Theories 21 Herzberg s Two-Factor Theory Job Dissatisfaction Complain a lot Motivation Factors Job Satisfaction Motivation Productivity Hygiene Factors Turnover Apathy No Job Satisfaction No Job Dissatisfaction 22 11
Herzberg s Two-Factor Theory Motivation factors (higher-order needs) Job content Can raise performance Performance on the Job Hygienic factors (lower-order needs) Job context Cannot motivate, but can become a source of dissatisfaction and lower performance Supervision Company policy And administration Working conditions Interpersonal relations Status Job security Salary Personal life 23 Maslow & Herzberg Theories Motivational factors Achievement Recognition Advancement Work itself Growth potential responsibility Self Actualization Esteem Social Safety Physiological Maintenance factors Interpersonal relationships Peers, supervisors, subordinates Company policy Job security Work conditions Salary Personal life 24 12
Relationship of Maslow to Herzberg If you know the motives (needs) of individuals you want to influence (according to Maslow), then you should be able to determine what goals (Herzberg) you should provide in the environment to motivate those individuals. Money and benefits satisfy needs at the physiological level Interpersonal relations and supervision satisfy the social needs Increased responsibility, challenging work, and growth and development are motivators at the esteem and self-actualization levels 25 Argyris (Psychological Energy Theory) Personnel are more self-actualized if there personal goals are consistent with the organizations goals Management should take advantage of people talents and interests when assigning jobs Make jobs interesting and challenging Help individuals satisfy their needs for selfactualization 26 13
Likert s Participative Management Theory Effective managers are highly sensitive to staff Communication and supportive relationships Participative management that may use management by objectives and job-enrichment opportunities 27 Process Theories Focus on people s thought or cognitive processes View motivating factors as a complex set of variables that, when taken together, enable motivation Behavioral and psychological processes in motivation as opposed to needs and drives that may influence motivation Three classic: Operant conditioning Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory 28 14
Operant Conditioning The focus is on processes in the external environment Behavior and motivation are shaped in response to stimuli in the environment Is based on the premise that people respond to stimuli that is rewarding and avoid stimuli that is punishing or undesirable Is focused on shaping behavior through environmental stimuli, such as punishment, rewards, incentives, ect 29 Expectancy Theory (Vroom) Individuals seek to do what they think will produce desirable results and minimize undesired results. People in the work setting will engage in behaviors that they believe will lead to valued outcomes. Work related activities are viewed as having positive or negative valences Valence according to Lewin is the attractiveness of an outcome Outcomes of behavior are viewed as having positive or negative assessments Vroom: behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives 30 15
Expectancy Theory (Vroom) People are motivated to perform behaviors with highest valences or with highest probability of leading to very good results Expectancy: is the likelihood that an action will lead to a certain outcome Expectancy theory states that the strength of an individual's motivation will depend on the extent to which they expect the results of their efforts to contribute towards their personal needs or goals. The general expectancy theory framework views behavior as determined by the multiplication of Valence with Expectancy (VxE) 31 Expectancy Theory (Vroom) Vroom suggested that the strength of an individual's motivation is the product of two factors. The strength of preference for a certain outcome (Valence) positive, negative or zero because outcomes may be desired, avoided or considered with indifference The expectation that a particular outcome will result from certain behavior (subjective probability) or (expectancy), which refers to the individual's perception of the link between behavior and outcome. It is represented by a number between 1 [probable] and 0 [no chance] 32 16
Goal-setting Theory Its basic premise is simple: goals serve as targets for human behavior Difficult or specific goals lead to higher performance than vague or nonexistent goals Goals direct attention and effort toward the task, Serve to mobilize action, Motivate individuals to search for strategies that will lead to effective performance Self-efficacy is a component of this theory Relates to a person s confidence and sense of capability in accomplishing goals Behavior is intentional and arises from deliberate action and conscious choices to accomplish specific goals 33 Other Related Theories of Work Motivation Managing scarce human resources through coordinating care and motivating nurses Traditional bureaucratic structures Close supervision and tight control Human relations models Decentralization McGregor s Theory X and Y Hawthorne Studies 34 17
McGregor s Theory X and Theory Y A series of assumptions that compare traditional view of workers (Theory X) with his own view (Theory Y) Traditional management (Theory X): Management by authority Can be used when the need level is physiological or safety Newer development (Theory Y): Management by integration Use when you know people are committed to organizational objectives 35 Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions: McGregor s Theory X assumptions: People dislike work, and have little ambition Will avoid work, so they must be coerced Above all they want security Average human wants to be directed McGregor s Theory Y assumptions: People like and enjoy work Effort to work is natural Self-direction Achievement is a reward to work Responsibility is sought and accepted 36 18
Theory X and Theory Y Assumptions: McGregor s Theory X assumptions: People dull and uncreative Achievement is irrelevant Quality is not important McGregor finds that people behave this way because of faulty system Managers can not maximize potentials of workers this way McGregor s Theory Y assumptions: Creativity, imagination and potential are evenly distributed in population Most people only use part of their abilities People want to improve quality 37 Managers with Theory X and Theory Y Philosophy Theory X Managers: Use fear and threat to motivate Supervise closely Delegate little responsibility Do not involve personnel in planning Theory Y Managers: Positive incentives (praise, recognition) General supervision Provide opportunities for growth Delegate Encourage participation in problem solving 38 19
Theory Z (.extra) Developed primarily by Japanese managers A newer approach that focuses on increasing productivity and job satisfaction Emphasis on close linkage of work and the workers life (personal and professional relationships and provide social support) Lifetime relationships Human relations theory: Participative management, cooperation, collective decisionmaking, and consensus Responsibility is collective 39 Hawthorne Studies Motivation and productivity studies Looked at factors (physical conditions, such as lighting and pay; work hours, work methods) that stimulate maximum production among workers The researchers had detailed information about the nature of the tasks to be performed Some employees were put into a room and watched When more lights, were added productivity was higher Other variables were introduced, each time productivity improved All variables were then withdrawn Productivity continued to increase Conclusion was the attention and human interpersonal relations motivated the employees, not just pay or working conditions 40 20
Leadership & Management Implications Motivation is important for understanding why people work and why some people are highly productive and others are not Requires internal and external force to move human beings to continuous high levels of productivity Motivation affects performance, turnover, absenteeism No single motivation theory explains accurately what motivates people or how people will behave in certain situations because human behavior is complex Each theory provides some insight and serves as guides for work behavior and nursing practice 41 Generalizations from Motivational Theory Motivation theory suggests that nurses may value some aspects of their jobs as positive or negative Nurse leaders and managers use these theories to create positively motivating work environments Nurse leaders and managers should recognize the variation, uniqueness, and individual differences between nurses Setting clear, specific goals is important in motivating employees Incentives, and rewards are always important; feedback and positive reinforcement, recognition and praise Equity is important; nurses are social beings and compare themselves to people around them and should be rewarded accordingly 42 21