. *<< Bridge Engineering Demetrios E. Tonias, RE. President HMC Group Ltd. Jim J. Zhao, P.E. President Frederick Engineering Consultants, LLC Second Edition Me Graw Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
Contents Design Examples and Perspectives Preface Preface to First Edition xvii xk xxi Section 1 The Structure 1 1.1 USE AND FUNCTIONALITY 3 1.1.1 Terminology and Nomenclature - 4 1. Superstructure - 4 2. Substructure - 6 3. Appurtenances and Site-Related Features - 9 4. Miscellaneous Terms - 10 1.1.2 Structure Types and Applications - 12 1. Slab-on-Stringer - 12 2. One-Way Slab - 13 3. Steel and Concrete Box Girder - 13 4. Cable-Stayed - 14 5. Suspension - 14 6. Steel and Concrete Arch - 14 7. Truss - 16 1.2 ORIGINS OF THE MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGE 17 1.3 BRIDGE DESIGNERS AND THEIR PROJECTS 19 1.4 THE BRIDGE ENGINEERING LEXICON 21 REFERENCES 37 Section 2 Project Inception 39 2.1 PROJECT FUNDING 39 2.1.1 User Fees - 40 2.1.2 NonuserFees - 40 2.1.3 Special Benefit Fees - 41 2.1.4 Private Financing - 41 2.1.5 Debt Financing - 42 2.1.6 Conclusions - 42
vi BRIDGE ENGINEERING fn TT^7 2.2 Types of Design Standards to 2.7.1 Supplementing As-Built Plans 2.2 TYPES OF DESIGN STANDARDS 42 2.2.1 General Specifications - 43 2.2.2 Material-Related Design Codes - 44 1. Steel - 44 2. Concrete - 44 3. Timber - 44 2.2.3 Use of Design Standards - 45 2.3 SITE INSPECTION 46 2.3.1 The Scoping Inspection - 47 2.3.2 Recording the Inspection - 48 2.3.3 Rating Substructure Elements - 49 1. Joints - 49 2. Bearings, Bridge Seats, and Pedestals - 50 3. Concrete Elements - 52 4. Steel Elements - 52 5. Timber Elements - 52 6. Embankment - 53 2.3.4 Rating Superstructure Elements - 54 1. Deck and Wearing Surface - 54 2. Primary and Secondary Members - 55 2.3.5 Rating Appurtenance and Site-Related Elements - 56 1. Railing - 56 2. Drainage Systems - 57 3. Utilities - 57 4. Lighting and Signing - 57 2.3.6 Inspecting for Scour - 58 1. The Channel - 58 2. The Substructure - 60 2.3.7 Conclusions - 60 2.4 SITE SURVEY 61 2.4.1 Topography - 61 2.4.2 Planimetry - 62 2.4.3 Structure Features - 63 2.5 PHYSICAL TESTING 64 2.5.1 Coring - 64 2.5.2 Delamination Testing - 64 2.5.3 Testing for Cover - 65 2.5.4 Measuring Steel Thickness - 65 2.5.5 Detecting Fatigue Cracks - 66 2.6 THE INSPECTION TEAM 66 2.7 AS-BUILT PLANS AND OTHER RECORD DATA 68 2.7.1 Supplementing As-Built Plans - 68 1. Guard Railing - 68 2. Drainage Facilities - 69
Contents from 2.7.2 Other Sources to 5.3.2 Latex Modified Concrete CONTENTS vii 3. TrafficBarriers-69 4. Miscellaneous Elements - 69 2.7.2 Other Sources - 69 2.8 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 70 71 Section 3 The Superstructure 73 3.1 SUPERSTRUCTURE TYPES 3.1.1 Steel Superstructures - 74 1. Rolled Beam - 75 2. Rolled Beam with Cover Plate - 75 3. Plate Girder - 75 4. Box Girder - 75 5. Steel Rigid Strut Frame - 75 6. Large Structures - 76 3.1.2 Concrete Superstructures - 76 1. Prestressed Concrete Girder - 76 2. Concrete Box Girder - 78 3. Concrete Slab - 79 4. Adjacent Prestressed Slab - 79 5. Concrete Rigid Frame - 79 6. Concrete Strut Frame - 79 7. Concrete Arch - 79 3.1.3 Timber Superstructures - 79 1. Glulam Timber - 80 2. Stressed-Laminated Timber Deck - 80 3. Trestle - 81 4. Truss - 81 3.1.4 Secondary Members - 81 1. Diaphragms - 81 2. Lateral Bracing - 84 3. Portal and Sway Bracing - 84 3.2 DECK TYPES 3.2.1 Noncomposite and Composite Decks - 84 3.2.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slab - 85 3.2.3 Precast, Prestressed Concrete Panels - 85 3.2.4 Steel Orthotropic Plate - 85 3.2.5 Steel Grid - 86 3.2.6 Timber - 86 3.2.7 Corrugated Metal - 87 3.2.8 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) - 87 3.3 WEARING SURFACE TYPES 3.3.1 Asphalt Concrete - 87 3.3.2 Latex Modified Concrete - 88 73 84 87
viii BR.DGE ENGINEERING 3jj 3.6.4 The Many Names of Working Stress and Limit States 3.3.3 High Density-Low Slump Concrete - 88 3.3.4 Integrated Wearing Surface - 88 3.4 DECK JOINT TYPES 88 3.4.1 Open Joints - 89 3.4.2 Filled Joints - 89 3.4.3 Compression Seal Joints - 89 3.4.4 Strip Seal Joints - 90 3.4.5 Modular Joints - 91 3.4.6 Finger Plate Joints - 92 3.4.7 Sliding Plate Joints - 93 3.4.8 Conclusions - 94 3.5 DESIGN LOADS 94 3.5.1 Background and History - 95 3.5.2 Permanent Loads - 95 1. Dead Load - 95 2. Superimposed Dead Load - 96 3. Pressures - 96 3.5.3 Temporary Loads - 97 1. Vehicle live Load- 97 2. Earthquake Loading - 100 3. Wind Loading - 104 4. Channel Forces - 105 5. Longitudinal Forces - 108 6. Centrifugal Forces - 109 7. Impact (Dynamic Load Allowance) - 109 8. Construction Loads - 110 3.5.4 Deformation and Response Loads - 110 1. Creep - 111 2. Shrinkage - 111 3. Settlement - 112 4. Uplift - 112 5. Thermal Forces - 113 3.5.5 Group Loading Combinations - 114 1. AASHTO Standard Specifications - 115 2. AASHTO LRFD Specifications - 116 3.6 DESIGN METHODS 119 3.6.1 Working Stress Design - 120 3.6.2 Limit States Design - 122 3.6.3 Background and History - 123 3.6.4 The Many Names of Working Stress and limit States - 125 1. Allowable Stress Design - 125 2. Service Load Design - 125 3. Load Factor Design - 125 4. Strength Design - 125 5. Ultimate Strength - 126 6. Load and Resistance Factor Design - 126
Contents from CONTENTS ix 3.7 Internal Forces to 3.10.6 Choosing a Rolled Section 3.7 INTERNAL FORCES 126 3.7.1 Bending Force - 127 3.7.2 Shear Force - 127 3.7.3 Torsional Force - 127 3.7.4 Axial Force - 128 3.8 LOAD DISTRIBUTION 128 3.8.1 How Loads Are Distributed - 129 3.8.2 Different Types of Load Distribution - 134 1. Interior Longitudinal Members - 134 2. Exterior Longitudinal Members - 134 3. Transverse Members - 135 4. Multibeam Concrete Decks (Concrete Panels) - 136 3.8.3 Conclusions - 137 3.9 CONCRETE DECK SLABS 137 3.9.1 Effective Span Length - 139 3.9.2 Calculation of Bending Moment - 140 1. Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic - 141 2. Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic - 142 3. Dead Load Moments - 144 4. Total Factored Moment - 144 3.9.3 Distribution Reinforcement - 144 3.9.4 Minimum Slab Thickness - 146 3.9.5 Railing Loads - 146 3.9.6 AASHTO LRFD Method - 148 3.9.7 Slab Reinforcement Details - 149 3.9.8 Construction, Rehabilitation, and Maintenance - 149 1. Increased Slab Thickness and Cover - 149 2. Coated Reinforcement - 150 3. Waterproofing Membrane - 150 4. Drainage - 151 5. Snow and Ice Removal - 154 6. Patching - 154 7. Sealing - 157 8. Cathodic Protection - 158 3.9.9 Conclusions - 160 3.10 COMPOSITE STEEL MEMBERS 162 3.10.1 Composite Action - 162 3.10.2 Shored and Unshored Construction - 166 3.10.3 Effective Flange Width - 167 3.10.4 The Transformed Section - 169 3.10.5 Effects of Creep - 170 3.10.6 Choosing a Rolled Section - 172 1. Compute Design Moments and Shear Forces - 172 2. Total Factored Moment and Shear Forces - 176 3. Choosing a Section - 177 4. Composite Section Strength - LFD Method - 178
x BRIDGE ENGINEERING,, 3.12.3 Moment Distribution 5. Composite Section Strength - LRFD Method - 182 6. Conclusions - 187 3.10.7 Shear Connector Design - 188 1. Fatigue - 188 2. Additional Geometric Constraints - 193 3. Effect of Stay-in-Place Forms - 194 4. Ultimate Strength - 194 3.10.8 Cover Plates - 200 1. Advantages of a Cover Plate - 201 2. Cover Plate Area - 202 3. Cover Plate Length - 202 4. Fatigue - AASHTO Standard Specifications - 204 5. Fatigue - AASHTO LRFD Specifications - 208 6. Welds - 208 7. Problems with Cover Plates - 210 3.10.9 Bearing Stiffeners with Rolled Beams - 211 3.10.10 Deflections - 212 3.10.11 Camber - 214 3.11 PLATE GIRDERS 216 3.11.1 Hybrid Girders - 217 3.11.2 Elements of a Plate Girder - 217 1. Flange Plate Thickness - 217 2. Flange Plate Economy - 218 3. Web Thickness - 218 4. Web Plate Economy - 219 5. Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners - 220 6. Transverse Intermediate Stiffener Economy - 225 7. Bearing Stiffeners - 225 8. Longitudinal Stiffeners - 226 9. Longitudinal Stiffener Economy - 228 10. Miscellaneous Economy Issues - 228 3.11.3 Lateral Bracing for Plate Girders - 229 1. Where Bracing Is Located - 229 2. Bracing as a Function of Span Length - 230 3. Placement and Types of Lateral Bracing - 230 4. Eliminating Lateral Bracing - 231 5. Economy of Lateral Bracing - 231 3.11.4 Cross-Frames for Plate Girders - 231 3.12 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 232 3.12.1 Advantages of Continuous Beams - 232 3.12.2 Rolled Sections as Continuous Beams - 233 3.12.3 Moment Distribution - 234 1. Overview - 234 2. Fixed End Moments - 235 3. Relative Beam Stiffness - 235 4. Fixity Factor - 236 5. Stiffness Factor - 236 6. Distribution Factor - 236
Contorts from CONTENTS Xi 3.12.4 Influence Lines to 3.13.3. Weathering Steel 7. Carry Over Factor - 236 8. Method Synopsis - 237 3.12.4 Influence lines - 237 1. General Moment Support Equation - 242 2. Unit Loads - 243 3. Influence Data at Intermediate Points - 243 4. Predefined Tables - 245 5. Using Influence lines - 247 6. Area under an Influence line - 249 7. Conclusions - 250 3.12.5 Alternate Method for Analysis of Continuous Beams - 253 3.12.6 live Load on Continuous Beam Structures - 262 1. Negative Moment Using Influence lines - 263 2. Special Load Points - 264 3. Maximum Shear - 266 4. Impact for Continuous Beams - 266 3.12.7 Composite Section in Negative Bending - 267 1. AASHTO Standard Specifications - 267 2. AASHTO LRFD Specifications - 268 3. Conclusions - 272 3.12.8 Beam Splices - 272 1. Required Strength - 273 2. Welded Splices - 274 3. Bolted Splices - 275 4. Bolted Web Splices - 278 5. Bolted Flange Splices - 278 3.12.9 Hanger Assemblies - 280 3.13 PROTECTING STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURES 282 3.13.1 Protective Coating Systems - 282 1. Background and History - 282 2. The Nature of Steel Corrosion - 284 3. Inhibitive Primers - 286 4. Sacrificial Primers - 286 5. Barrier Coatings - 288 6. Surface Preparation - 288 7. Overcoating - 294 8. Micaceous Iron Oxide (MIO) Coatings - 295 9. Conclusions - 297 3.13.2 Containment and Disposal of Paint Waste - 298 1. Background and History - 299 2. Containment Devices - 300 3. Recycling Abrasives - 305 4. Disposal Methods - 306 5. Conclusions - 307 3.13.3 Weathering Steel - 309 1. Background and History - 309 2. Material Properties of Weathering Steel - 309 3. Environmental Considerations - 310 4. Maintenance of Weathering Steel - 310
Xil BRIDGE ENGINEERING Contents from 3.13.4 Galvanising to 3.16.2 Deterioration of Prestressed Concrete 5. Inspection of Weathering Steel - 311 6. Rehabilitation of Weathering Steel - 312 7. Conclusions - 312 3.13.4 Galvanizing - 313 1. Overview - 313 2. Benefits and Drawbacks -314 3.13.5 Conclusions - 314 3.14 LOAD RATING 315 3.14.1 Inventory and Operating Ratings - 315 3.14.2 Field Measurements and Inspection - 316 3.14.3 Loading the Structure - 316 3.14.4 Working Stress Method - 317 1. Steel and Wrought Iron - 318 2. Conventionally Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete - 319 3. Timber - 319 3.14.5 Load Factor Method - 319 3.14.6 LRFD Method - 321 1. Overview - 322 2. The Concept of Safe Evaluation - 322 3. Conclusions - 323 3.15 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE 324 3.15.1 Overview of Prestressed Concrete - 325 1. Pretensioned Beams - 326 2. Posttensioned Beams - 327 3. Application ofpre-and Posttensioned Concrete - 328 4. Prestressing Steels - 328 5. Concrete for Prestressing - 330 3.15.2 Composite Beams - 330 1. Advantages - 330 2. Effective Flange Width - 332 3. Horizontal Shear - 334 3.15.3 Required Prestress Force - 336 3.15.4 Loss of Prestress-342 1. Elastic Shortening of Concrete - 342 2. Shrinkage of Concrete - 344 3. Creep of Concrete - 346 4. Friction - 346 5. Relaxation of Prestressing Steel - 349 6. Total Loss - 350 7. Estimated Losses - 350 3.15.5 Allowable Stresses - 350 3.15.6 Flexural Strength - 351 3.16 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE MAINTENANCE 353 3.16.1 Overview - 353 3.16.2 Deterioration of Prestressed Concrete - 354 1. Cracking - 355 2. Other Forms of Concrete Corrosion - 356 3. Deterioration of Prestressing Steel - 356
Contentsfrom 3.16.3 Inspection of Prestressed Concrete to 4.1.8 Rehabilitation and Maintenance CONTENTS 3.16.3 Inspection of Prestressed Concrete - 356 3.16.4 Rehabilitation of Prestressed Concrete - 358 1. Patching- 359 2. Permanent Formwork - 359 3. Crack Injection - 360 4. Sealers - 361 5. Strengthening - 361 6. Conclusions - 361 REFERENCES 362 Section 4 The Substructure 369 4.1 ABUTMENTS 370 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7 4.1.8 Types of Abutments - 370 1. Gravity Abutment - 371 2. U Abutment - 371 3. Cantilever Abutment - 371 4. Full Height Abutment - 372 5. Stub Abutment - 372 6. Semi-Stub Abutment - 372 7. Counterfort Abutment - 372 8. Spill-through Abutment - 373 9. Pile Bent Abutment - 373 10. MSE Systems - 374 Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory - 375 Abutment Stability - Service Load Design Method - 380 Load Factor Design Method - 382 Load and Resistance Factor Design Method - 382 Other Related Foundation Topics - 383 Mononobe - Okabe Analysis - 384 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Background - 384 Horizontal and Vertical Seismic Coefficients - 386 Basic Assumption - 388 Active Earth Pressure - 388 Applying Active Earth Pressure - 390 Caveats - 391 Superstructure Loads - 392 Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 392 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Cracking - 392 Surface Deterioration - 394 Stability Problems - 394 Bridge Seat Deterioration - 396 Sheet Piling Abutments - 398 Stone Masonry Abutments - 398 MSE Systems - 398 Footings - 399 Piles - 400
xiv BRIDGE ENGINEERING 5.1.2 Maintenance of Traffic 4.2 PIERS 401 4.2.1 Types of Piers - 402 1. Hammerhead - 403 2. Column Bent - 404 3. PileBent-404 4. Solid Wall - 405 5. Integral - 405 6. Single Column - 406 4.2.2 Behavior and Loading of Piers - 406 4.2.3 Design Criteria - 407 4.2.4 Design of Compression Members - 409 1. Load Factor Design Considerations - 410 2. Load and Resistance Factor Design Considerations - 410 3. Slenderness Effects - 410 4. Interaction Diagrams - 418 4.2.5 Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 421 4.2.6 Scour - 423 1. Overview - 424 2. Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 425 3. Replacement of Material - 425 4. Changing the Structure - 427 5. Replacing the Structure - 427 4.3 BEARINGS 427 4.3.1 Forces Acting on a Bearing - 428 4.3.2 Movement of Bearings - 429 4.3.3 Types of Bearings - 430 1. Rocker Bearings - 431 2. Roller Bearings - 432 3. Sliding Plate Bearings - 432 4. Pot Bearings - 432 5. Spherical Bearings - 433 6. Elastomeric Bearings - 433 7. Lead Rubber Bearings - 435 4.3.4 Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 436 REFERENCES 437 Section 5 Implementation & Management 439 5.1 THE HIGHWAY 440 5.1.1 Design Elements of a Highway - 440 1. Horizontal Alignment - 441 2. Vertical Alignment - 442 3. Stopping Sight Distance - 445 4. Roadway Width - 449 5.1.2. Maintenance of Traffic - 451
Contentsfrom CONTENTS X 5.2 Contract Documents to Index 5.2 CONTRACT DOCUMENTS 453 5.2.1 Design Submissions - 454 1. Alternative Study - 454 2. Preliminary Submission - 455 3. Advanced Detail Submission - 457 4. Final Submission - 457 5.2.2 Computer Aided Design and Drafting - 457 1. File Organization - 458 2. Geometric Source Files - 460 3. The Forgotten D in CADD - 460 4. Graphic Standards and Quality Control - 461 5.2.3 Conclusions - 462 5.3 BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 463 5.3.1 Background and History - 464 5.3.2 Inventory Database - 465 5.3.3 Maintenance Database - 466 5.3.4 Project and Network Level Analysis - 466 5.3.5 Predicting the Condition of Bridges - 467 5.3.6 Miscellaneous Decision Assisting Criteria - 468 5.3.7 Costing Models - 468 5.3.8 Optimization Models - 469 5.3.9 Building the Database - 469 5.3.10 Managing Small and Large Structures - 470 5.3.11 Current Bridge Management Systems - 471 5.3.12 BMS link to Design of Bridges - 471 5.3.13 BMS link to Pavement Management Systems - 474 5.3.14 GIS and Imaging Technologies - 474 REFERENCES 475 Appendix 477 Acknowledgments 479 Illustration credits 480 Index 48i