Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping. A comparison of France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Exposé.

Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping A comparison of France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom Exposé Submitted by Rebecca Hoffmann European Master in Business Studies University of Kassel Kassel, 3 rd December 2013

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 2 Abstract Keywords: User acceptance, mobile commerce, cultural differences Background: Cultural aspects are often neglected by researchers investigating the determinants of technology acceptance. That is also the case for the examination of mobile internet use and mobile commerce, which are becoming increasingly important. Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to research the role of culture in influencing mobile shopping use by comparing four countries (France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) with the help of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2 (UTAUT2) model. Method: The necessary data will be collected through an online survey using quantitative research measures. The results from the survey will be analysed employing partial least squares regression.

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 3 Table of content Abstract... 2 Table of content... 3 List of abbreviations... 4 1. Introduction... 5 1.1 Background... 5 1.2 Problem statement... 5 1.3 Purpose... 5 2. Review of Literature... 6 2.1 Mobile commerce... 6 2.2 Culture... 9 2.3 Research Model... 11 3. Hypotheses development... 13 3.1 Performance expectancy and culture... 13 3.2 Effort expectancy and culture... 14 3.3 Social influence and culture... 14 3.4 Facilitating conditions and culture... 15 3.5 Hedonic motivation and culture... 15 3.6 Price value and culture... 16 3.7 Habit and culture... 16 3.8 Perceived risk and culture... 16 4. Methodology... 18 5. Overview of chapters... 18 6. Work plan... 19 Reference List... 20

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 4 List of abbreviations m-commerce OECD PDA PDI POS TAM UAI UTAUT WAP mobile commerce Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Personal digital assistant power distance index point of sale Technology Acceptance Model uncertainty avoidance index Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Wireless application protocol

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 5 1. Introduction 1.1 Background Mobile internet and mobile commerce are on the rise. The smartphone has become the most popular mobile medium to access the internet and half of those people who do not own a device yet that allows them to access the internet from wherever they are intent to buy one soon (Accenture, 2012). Also, the usage of mobile payments and the intention to use them are increasing steadily (Accenture, 2012). To explain and predict the use of technologies like mobile commerce applications, a variety of models have been created. The most commonly used and cited of these models is the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), which was created for technology acceptance in a working environment, though. A more up to date model is the latest extension of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2) which was created for the use in consumer contexts (Venkatesh, Thong, James Y. L., & Xu, 2012). 1.2 Problem statement Culture conditions most decisions humans make throughout their lives. Still, models like the TAM and the more up to date Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) that focus on the determinants of technology acceptance neglect the role of culture in influencing the adoption and use of technology (Venkatesh et al., 2012). Most researchers assume that the needs of users are all the same (Wagner & Klaus, 2009), although there is proof for the divergence of consumer behaviour due to different cultural predispositions (Mooij, 2003). 1.3 Purpose Consequently, the purpose of the thesis is to research the role of culture in influencing mobile shopping use. Therefore, the proposed model will be tested by comparing four European countries with the help of Hofstede s cultural dimensions and Schwartz theory of cultural values. The selected countries are France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Despite their geographical proximity and their similar state of human development (United Nations Development Programme, 2013), their history has been marked by

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 6 very different influences. Scholars have clustered the world into different country clusters: While the French are part of Latin Europe, the United Kingdom belongs to the Anglo cultures and the Netherlands and Germany belong to Germanic Europe (Gupta, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002). Last but not least, all four countries are in the growth stage concerning mobile commerce (Groß, 2012). Therefore, these countries are suitable for the comparison. 2. Review of Literature The following section presents an overview of the literature and theoretical constructs to substantiate the research question put forward. 2.1 Mobile commerce The first part is dedicated to the review of literature related to mobile commerce (mcommerce). Definitions as well as the state of literature on mobile commerce are presented. In addition, literature concerning m-commerce and culture and perceived risk in m-commerce was reviewed. The OECD defines mobile commerce (m-commerce) as a business model that allows a consumer to complete all steps of a commercial transaction using a mobile phone or personal digital assistant (PDA) (OECD, 2007). Using internet on a mobile telephone has been possible since the introduction of the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) in 1997. Since then, the development of technology, such as bigger displays for smartphones, and the decrease of prices have encouraged an increasing use of mobile internet (Heinemann, 2012). Current problems are the unmodified applicability of m-commerce in cross-national contexts (Wagner & Klaus, 2009) and the role of risk in m-commerce (Featherman & Fuller, 2003). Topic Title Author Source, year Key statements m- commerce Mobile Commerce OECD OECD Digital Economy Papers (2007) Definition of m- commerce: M- commerce as a

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 7 business model that allows a consumer to complete all steps of a commercial transaction using a mobile phone or personal digital assistant (PDA). Significant development of m- commerce predicted for the future. Crucial to reduce risks for consumers. m- commerce Mobile Commerce 2012 Status quo und Potenziale Svenja Groß ebusiness-lotse (2012) Definition of m- commerce. M-commerce as a form of appearance of e- commerce using wireless communication and mobile terminal devices. M-commerce includes the purchase of products or services using mobile terminal devices as well as further activities that are related with the purchase, such as preliminary information search and payment with the mobile device (m-payment) at the

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 8 m- commerce m- commerce Der neue Mobile- Commerce Erfolgsfaktoren und Best Practices Mobile Web Watch 2012: Mobile Internet spawning new growth opportunities in the convergence era Gerrit Heinemann POS as well as the browser or an application. France, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK are all in the growth phase concerning m-commerce. Book (2012) Mobile internet use since introduction of WAP. Increased usage of mobile internet due to improved surface with userfriendly touchscreen and price collapse for mobile data services. Explanations of the common applications in m- commerce (mobile-shopping website, mobileshopping apps, mobile-shopping at POS). Accenture (2012) Smartphone is the most popular mobile Internet access medium. Concerns regarding data security persist (70% of people).

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 9 m- commerce & culture Cultural impacts on the spread of mobile commerce: An international comparison Ralf Wagner, Martin Klaus Handbook of research in mobile business: Technical, Methodological, and social perspectives (2009) Culture is important for the acceptance of m- commerce offers. Standardisation of m-commerce vendors offers and communication is not advisable. Low PDI and UAI cultures are more likely to adopt m- commerce services. m- commerce & risk Applying TAM to e-services: The moderating role of perceived risk Mauricio Featherman, Mark Fuller Proceedings of the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (2003) Definition of perceived risk: the combination of uncertainty plus seriousness of outcome. Perceived risk is an inhibitor of perceived usefulness and adoption intention. 2.2 Culture The second part of my literature review is concerned with culture. In this part, definitions of culture are reviewed and the different models that make culture measurable and comparable and which will be used in my thesis are presented. One of the most cited definition of culture is the one by Kroeber and Kluckhohn that defines culture as a product of past actions that will influence future actions of members of society (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952). Kotabe and Helsen (Kotabe & Helsen, 2001) define culture as a learned, shared, compelling, interrelated set of symbols to provide orientation to members of society. One of the best known

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 10 definitions of culture comes from Hofstede and determines culture as the mental programming of the mind (Hofstede, 1984). The cultural concepts I will use to test the influence of culture on use of mobile commerce are Hofstede s cultural dimensions (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010) and Schwartz theory of cultural values (Schwartz, 1999). Last but not least, the theory of convergence versus divergence in global consumer behaviour is examined (Mooij, 2003). Topic Title Author Source, year Key statements Culture Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions Culture Culture Culture Global Marketing Management Culture s consequences - International differences in work-related values A Theory of Cultural Values and Some Implications for Work Alfred Kroeber, Clyde Kluckhohn Masaaki Kotabe, Kristiaan Helsen Geert Hofstede Shalom H. Schwartz Peabody Museum Papers (1952) Book (2001) Book (1984) Applied Psychology: An International Review (1999) Definition of culture. Culture as products of past actions that conditions future actions. Consists of patterns of and for behaviour, traditional ideas and attached values. Definition of culture. Culture as a learned, shared, compelling, interrelated set of symbols to provide orientation to members of society in order to find solutions for problems that every society must solve. Definition of culture. Culture as the mental programming of the mind that differentiates one group of people from another. Theory of types of values on which cultures can be compared. 3 issues to be solved in every society: relation between individual and

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 11 group, management of social interdependencies, relation of humans to the natural and the world. 7 value types: Conservatism, intellectual autonomy, affective autonomy, hierarchy, egalitarianism, mastery and harmony. Culture Cultures and Organizations - Software of the Mind Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov Book (2010) Identification of 6 cultural dimensions to compare cultures. Dimensions: Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, individualism, long-term orientation and indulgence. Culture & Globalisation Convergence and divergence in consumer behaviour: implications for international retailing Marieke de Mooij, Geert Hofstede Journal Retailing (2002) of Proofs divergence of consumer behaviour. For some durable goods and new technologies, at macro level (ownership of products per 1000 people), countries converge, but they diverge with respect to how people tend to use these products. 2.3 Research Model In this section, the development and structure of the research model used for answering the research question mentioned above are displayed. The research model in question is the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2 (UTAUT2) by Venkatesh et. al (2012). Its goal is to explain technology adoption in a consumer context. It is an extension of the UTAUT model created in 2003 (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003). By adding three more determinants

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 12 of behavioural intention and/or use behaviour the model was made applicable for consumer contexts (Venkatesh et al., 2012). Both models are based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) and its successor the TAM2 (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). As mentioned above in the literature review on mobile commerce, a concept commonly mentioned in relation to mobile commerce is the perceived risk that hinders consumers to make use of mobile commerce. Therefore, I will integrate this concept in my research model and the hypotheses. Topic Title Author Source, year Key statements TAM Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology Fred D. Davis, Ann Arbor MIS Quarterly (1989) The purpose of the Technology Acceptance Model is to predict and explain use of technology. Perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are found to be fundamental determinants of system use. TAM2 A Theoretical Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model: Four Longitudinal Field Studies Viswanath Venkatesh, Fred D. Davis Management Science (2000) Extension of the TAM. Integrates subjective norm, image, job relevance, output quality, result demonstrability as additional determinants of perceived usefulness. UTAUT User Acceptance of Information Technology: Toward a Unified View Viswanath Venkatesh, Michael G. Morris, Gordon B. Davis, Fred D. Davis MIS Quarterly (2003) Unified model integrating elements from 8 different user acceptance models. Identifies 3 direct determinants of behavioural intention (performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence) and 2 direct

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 13 determinants of use behaviour (intention and facilitating conditions). Experience, voluntariness, gender, and age have moderating influences. UTAUT2 Consumer Acceptance and Use of Information Technology: Extending the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Viswanath Venkatesh, James Y. L. Thong, Xin Xu MIS Quarterly (2012) Extends UTAUT to a consumer context. Integrates hedonic motivation and price value as determinants of behavioural intention and habit as a determinant of behavioural intention and use behaviour. 3. Hypotheses development 3.1 Performance expectancy and culture Performance expectancy was earlier defined as the degree to which the consumer believes that the use of a particular technology will provide him or her with benefits in the performance of certain activities. According to Basabe and Ros (2005, p. 191), people from individualist cultures put a high emphasis on personal achievement. Therefore, these cultures presumably value performance higher than individuals from collectivistic cultures do. The United Kingdom and the Netherlands score much higher on individualism than Germany and France. I, therefore, hypothesise that the relationship between performance expectancy and behavioural intention will be stronger for consumers from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands compared to those from Germany and France. Thus: H1a: The relationship between performance expectancy and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be stronger for consumers from the United Kingdom compared to those from Germany.

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 14 H1b: The relationship between performance expectancy and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be stronger for consumers from the United Kingdom compared to those from France. H1c: The relationship between performance expectancy and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be stronger for consumers from the Netherlands compared to those from Germany. H1d: The relationship between performance expectancy and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be stronger for consumers from the United Kingdom compared to those from France. 3.2 Effort expectancy and culture Effort expectancy is defined as the degree of ease the consumer associates with the use of a technology. According to Smith, et al. (2013, p. 330), consumers from more individualistic cultures desire personal convenience stronger than consumers from less individualistic cultures. The United Kingdom is the most individualistic out of the four countries researched, followed by the Netherlands. In addition, the United Kingdom also scores the highest on Schwartz s mastery dimension, which according to Smith, et al. (2013, p. 330) speaks for a higher appreciation of technology that is easier to use or at least is perceived as such by the consumer. Hence, I hypothesise that: H2: The strength of the relationship between effort expectancy and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the strongest for consumers from the United Kingdom. 3.3 Social influence and culture Social influence is the extent to which individuals feel that other people who are important to them think that they should use the technology. According to Markus and Kitayama (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, p. 225), the thinking of individuals with interdependent selves is much more influenced by the consideration of what important others think and what their reactions might be. This concept is addressed in Schwartz s conservatism/autonomy dimension. There are two types of autonomy according to Schwartz affective and intellectual autonomy. Intellectual autonomy fits better in this context as it includes the values freedom and curiosity as well as self-determination, meaning that individuals are encouraged to make decisions independently. Germany scores the highest on intellectual autonomy and the lowest on conservatism, which independent selves, it can be assumed that potential reactions and thoughts of others do not have a major influence on their behaviour. France, on the other hand, scores the highest on conservatism and the lowest on intellectual autonomy, which leads to the

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 15 assumption that the behaviour of individuals in France is more dependent on other people s reactions and thinking than in the other researched countries. I, therefore, hypothesise that the strength of the relationship between social influence and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the strongest for French consumers and the weakest for German ones. Thus: H3a: The strength of the relationship between social influence and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the strongest for consumers from France. H3b: The strength of the relationship between social influence and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the weakest for consumers from Germany. Hofstede s individualism versus collectivism dimension is not taken into account here because it is more concerned with the goals of the individual versus the goals of the group and, thus, does not address social influence the way Schwartz does. 3.4 Facilitating conditions and culture Facilitating conditions deal with the availability of support for the use of the technology as perceived by the consumer. The availability of support could reduce insecurities concerning the usage of a technology. Facilitating conditions could serve to reduce perceived uncertainty. Thus, the influence that facilitating conditions have on behavioural intention and use behaviour should be stronger for cultures that are more uncertainty avoidant. France scores by far the highest on the uncertainty avoidance dimension by Hofstede, while the United Kingdom has the lowest score. I, therefore, hypothesise that: H4a: The relationship between facilitating conditions and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the strongest for consumers from the United Kingdom. H4b: The relationship between facilitating conditions and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the weakest for consumers from France. H4c: The relationship between facilitating conditions and actual use of mobile shopping will be the strongest for consumers from the United Kingdom. H4d: The relationship between facilitating conditions and actual use of mobile shopping will be the weakest for consumers from France. 3.5 Hedonic motivation and culture Venkatesh et al. (2012, p. 483) determined hedonic motivation, which is the pleasure a person obtains from using a technology, as a determinant of behavioural intention to use a technology. Pleasure is addressed in Schwartz s value orientation affective autonomy as well as in

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 16 Hofstede s dimension indulgence versus restraint. France scores low on affective autonomy as well as on indulgence versus restraint, while the Netherlands and the United Kingdom score high. Only Germany has contradicting scores on the two dimensions with a low score on indulgence versus restraint and a high one on affective autonomy. I, therefore, hypothesise that: H5: The strength of the relationship between hedonic motivation and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the weakest for consumers from France. 3.6 Price value and culture Price value was defined as the consumers cognitive tradeoff between the perceived benefits of a technology and the monetary costs for using them. There have not been any comments on cultural differences for the price value concept. Additionally, a tradeoff between benefits and costs might be a more personal thing, depending more on things, such as income of the individual, than culture. I, therefore, hypothesise that: H6: The strength of the relationship between price value and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the same for consumers from France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. 3.7 Habit and culture Habit was defined as the extent to which people tend to perform behaviours automatically because of learning. For this concept, too, no cultural differences have been explored in literature. In addition, habit once again is positioned on the individual level and not on the cultural. Thus, I hypothesise that: H7a: The strength of the relationship between habit and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the same for consumers from France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. H7b: The strength of the relationship between habit and actual use of mobile shopping will be the same for consumers from France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. 3.8 Perceived risk and culture I added perceived risk to the research model because it is an issue that is constantly quoted in relation to the adoption and use of mobile shopping. The perception of risk and its influence

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 17 is dealt with in Hofstede s cultural theory. According to Hofstede, cultures that score high on the uncertainty avoidance dimension tend to take less risks than other cultures that score lower on this dimension. This is because risk perceptions of individuals from cultures that are highly uncertainty avoidant are more influenced by potential losses while the risk perceptions from people lower on the uncertainty avoidance dimension are more affected by potential gains (Bontempo, Bottom, & Weber, 1997, p. 483). Out of the four researched countries, France scores by far the highest on the uncertainty avoidance dimension. The United Kingdom, on the other hand, is positioned on the opposite side of the dimension and, thus, is the least uncertainty avoidant country. In line with the first research model proposed that defines perceived risk as a determinant of behavioural intention, I, hence, hypothesise that: H8.1a: The strength of the relationship between perceived risk and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the strongest for consumers from France. H8.1b: The strength of the relationship between perceived risk and behavioural intention to use mobile shopping will be the weakest for consumers from the United Kingdom. In line with the second research model proposed, according to which perceived risk acts as a moderator on the relationship between behavioural intention to use a technology and use behaviour, the relationship between behavioural intention and use behaviour is the weakest for French consumers and the strongest for British ones. This is because consumers in the United Kingdom are the least uncertainty avoidant out of the four researched countries. Therefore, they are not as risk averse as the other cultures and the influence of perceived risk on the relationship between behavioural intention and use behaviour is smaller. The opposite is true for France, which is the country with the highest uncertainty avoidance. Perceived risk will therefore have the highest impact on the relationship between intention to use and actual use for French consumer. Thus, I hypothesise: H8.2a: The strength of the relationship between behavioural intention and use behaviour will be the weakest for consumers from the France. H8.2b: The strength of the relationship between behavioural intention and use behaviour will be the strongest for consumers from the United Kingdom.

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 18 4. Methodology The data needed to answer the research question will be collected through an online questionnaire that will be sent to students in the respective countries (France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom). By approaching the administrative staff of universities and asking them to send it to the students a lot of potential participants can be reached who can then fill out the online survey. In case that there will be problems with the ethical commission of some universities, I will distribute the questionnaires via facebook. The questionnaire will be based on quantitative research measures, mainly using Likert scales because it was also used for the development of UTAUT2 (Venkatesh et al., 2012). The results from the survey will be analysed employing partial least squares regression. The method will be applied with the help of the SmartPLS software application. 5. Overview of chapters Abstract Table of content Table of figures Table of abbreviations 1. Introduction 2. Literature Review 2.1 Definitions: In this part definitions of m-commerce, culture and cultural differences will be given. 2.2 Cultural Frameworks: In this section the cultural frameworks of Hofstede and Schwartz will be explained. 2.3 Research model: This part will be dedicated to the explanation of the development and structure of UTAUT2. 3. Hypotheses development: In this section the hypotheses will be developed on the basis of the literature review.

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 19 4. Research methodology: This section will be dedicated to explaining how the research will be executed. 5. Analysis of results: This part will be dedicated to the analysis of the results retrieved from the survey. 6. Implications: The practical and theoretical implications of the findings will be outlined. 7. Conclusion and limitations: A final conclusion will be drawn and the limitations of the thesis will be mentioned. Bibliography Appendix 6. Work plan Date To Do Description 01.10.-21.10.2013 General research Gather information on the topic and write Exposé 22.10.-10.11.2013 Exposé Complete and correct Exposé, conduct 11.11.-01.12.2013 Theory Finish literature review and theoretical basis of the thesis 02.12.2013-05.01.2014 Methodology, intermediate presentation 06.01.-02.02.2014 Survey, intermediate report Create survey and finish methodology part, create intermediate presentation Conduct survey and prepare the intermediate presentation 03.02.-02.03.2014 Analysis Analyse the survey results and create figures 03.03.-30.03.2014 Implications, conclusion and limitations 31.03.-deadline Finishing, final presentation Finish the implications part, draw conclusions and list limitations Finalise and review the master thesis, prepare the final presentation

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 20 Reference List Accenture (2012). Mobile Web Watch 2012: Mobile Internet spawning new growth opportunities in the convergence era, from http://www.accenture.com/sitecollectiondocuments/pdf/accenture-mobile- Web-Watch-Internet-Usage-Survey-2012.pdf. Basabe, N., & Ros, M. (2005). Cultural dimensions and social behaviour correlates: Individualism-collectivism and power distance. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, (1), 189 225. Retrieved December 02, 2013. Bontempo, R. N., Bottom, W. P., & Weber, E. U. (1997). Cross-cultural differences in risk perception: A model-based approach. Risk Analysis, 17(4), 479 488. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319 340. Retrieved October 17, 2013. Featherman, M. & Fuller, M. (2003). Applying TAM to E-Services Adoption: The Moderating Role of Perceived Risk. Retrieved October 20, 2013, from 36th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences: http://www.hicss.hawaii.edu/hicss36/hicsspapers/inemg01.pdf. Groß, S. (2012, August 30). Mobile Commerce 2012 - Status Quo und Potenziale. Berlin. Gupta, V., Hanges, P. J., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Cultural clusters: methodology and findings. Journal of World Business, 37(1), 11 15. Heinemann, G. (2012). Der neue Mobile-Commerce: Erfolgsfaktoren und Best Practices. SpringerLink : Bücher. Wiesbaden: Gabler Verlag; Imprint: Gabler Verlag.

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 21 Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind: Intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival (3rd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. H. (1984). Culture's consequences: International differences in workrelated values (Abridged ed). Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Kotabe, M., & Helsen, K. (2001). Global marketing management (2nd ed). New York: Wiley. Kroeber, A., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Peabody Musuem Papers, 47(1), 170 210. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224 253. Mooij, M. de (2003). Convergence and divergence in consumer behavior: implications for global advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 22(2), 183 202. OECD (2007). Mobile commerce. Retrieved December 03, 2013, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/231111848550. Schwartz, S. H. (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology, 48(1), 23 47. Smith, R., Deitz, G., Royne, M. B., Hansen, J. D., Grünhagen, M., & Witte, C. (2013). Cross-cultural examination of online shopping behavior: A comparison of Norway, Germany, and the United States. Journal of Business Research, 66(3), 328 335. Retrieved October 15, 2013.

Exposé: Cultural differences in the use of mobile shopping 22 United Nations Development Programme (2013). Summary: Human development report 2013: The rise of the south: Human progress in a diverse world, from http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr2013_en_summary.pdf. Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000). A theoretical extension of the Technology Acceptance Model: Four longitudinal field studies. Management Science, 46(2), 186 204. Retrieved October 17, 2013. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425 478. Retrieved October 17, 2013. Venkatesh, V., Thong, James Y. L., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: Extending the Unfied Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. MIS Quarterly, (36), 157 178. Retrieved October 17, 2013. Wagner, R., & Klaus, M. (2009). Cultural impacts on the spread of mobile commerce: An international comparison. In B. Unhelkar (Ed.), Handbook of research in mobile business. Technical, methodological, and social perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 245 259). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.