WORK STRESS AND PERSONALITY MEASURES AMONG HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY EMPLOYEES

9 Work stress and personality measures among hospitality industry employees Glenn F. Ross The rectification of stress is to the significant advantage of both employees and management Introduction Work stress is now regarded by many commentators as one of the most important issues facing management in this decade. Work stress has the potential to affect the performance of all levels of staff, ranging from senior management to the young and newly employed. All workers in their daily experiences are aware that conflictfilled situations have the potential to produce feelings of physical and psychological discomfort. When an employee is confronted with a situation that poses a threat, such as conflict between staff members or between staff and clients of the organization, the form of physiological and emotional arousal he or she experiences is generally termed stress. Prolonged exposure to stressful situations has been found to produce serious dysfunctional effects in the individual that can affect job performance and thus overall organizational effectiveness. The rectification of such a situation is thus to the significant advantage of both employees and management. Cooper and Payne[1] have concluded that a preventive perspective by management has the potential not only to maximize profit margins but also to ensure a satisfied and effective workforce. The prevalence of occupational stress in the workforce in many countries is now gaining significant recognition. In recent times, many organizations and researchers investigated the problem of stress in terms of lost productivity and low staff morale. Fletcher[2] has made the point that many occupations, including teaching, nursing, air traffic controllers and transportation personnel, have now been studied and have revealed high levels of work stress among many members, manifested in both physical and psychological symptoms. Cooper and Payne[1] have made the point that investigations of the nature and dimensions of work stress among individuals in all employment contexts is the first step in International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 7 No. 6, 1995, pp. 9-13 MCB University Press Limited, 0959-6119 the management and elimination of this often unpleasant and unproductive aspect of work. The present research represents efforts in this process within the context of the hospitality industry. Spector[3] has made the point that personality variables play an important role in the understanding of a range of behaviours in the workplace. Locus of control is perhaps one of the most prominent personality variables that has been studied in a variety of work and organizational settings. Within this body of research, Rotter s[4] internal/external locus of control scale has been the instrument most often employed. Locus of control as a personality dimension is regarded as a generalized expectation that rewards, i.e., reinforcements of life outcomes, are controlled either by one s own efforts (internal) or by outside forces (external). In work settings, rewards can typically include promotions, favourable circumstances, salary increases, and general career progress. Both O Brien[5] and Spector[3] have provided reviews of this personality dimension as related to the work context. Findings generally suggest that internal subjects tend to be more satisfied with their jobs than do external ones, see their supervisors as higher on consideration and initiating structure, report less role stress, perceive more autonomy and control, and tend to favour longer job tenure. For internal subjects, attainments in the work context are seen to be more under their own control and come as the result of effort, whereas, for external subjects, attainment is regarded as emanating from some outside source or by chance. Competence (e.g. Smith[6]) is another personality dimension that has been widely discussed in the psychological literature. For example, Jahoda[7] wrote in terms of environmental mastery, whereas Bradburn[8] examined people s ability to cope with and transcend their difficulties in living, and Bandura (e.g.[9]) investigated beliefs about self-efficacy or expectations of personal mastery. A competent person is one who has adequate psychological resources to deal with

10 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT 7,6 experienced difficulties. It is necessary in this context to distinguish between subjective and independent assessments, with subjective competence being measured through self-reports, and independent assessments being made by a relevant observer. The measurement of aspiration is another domain that may shed some understanding on work behaviours and reactions such as stress. A mentally healthy person is often viewed as having an interest in, and engaging with, the environment. He or she establishes goals and makes active efforts to attain them through motivated behaviour, alertness to new opportunities, and efforts to meet challenges that are personally significant. Conversely, low levels of aspiration are exhibited in reducing involvement and activity, and in an acceptance of present conditions even when they are unsatisfactory. This aspect of mental health has been emphasized in occupational research by Herzberg[10], who examined the impact of job features on workers psychological growth. Maslow (e.g.[11]) developed a similar perspective in terms of self-actualization, and parallel themes have been explored by Csikszentmihalyi[12] and Kornhauser[13]. Warr s[14] measure of reported job aspiration will be employed in this study. While issues such as work stress are now regarded as important subjects of study within many work contexts, the domains of tourism, hospitality and leisure would seem unusual workplaces in which to examine stress. However, some commentators are now making the point that such contexts do contain stressors for these employed therein. Chappell and Henry[15] report that there are very high levels of labour turnover which may be attributed in major part to the particular stresses involved in working within this industry. They report the major stressors as being the constant demands for pleasant and courteous service as well as poor management practices, particularly in the areas of communication, motivation and feedback. Chappell and Henry[15] make the point that high rates of labour turnover will not be rectified until such issues are addressed, either by improving management practices or by improving working conditions and educational opportunities. This study has examined major work stress responses in the form of mood states among a sample of hospitality industry employees, together with explanatory personality variables such as the locus of control, reported job competence and reported job aspiration. Method Subjects One-hundred-and-thirty-three employees within the hospitality industry in the Far North Queensland tourist city of Cairns were sampled. Ross[16-18] has found that the tourism/hospitality industry is a highly salient industry in this area, with many people evincing positive attitudes and vocational intentions regarding employment in this industry. Respondents in this study were all from major hotels and resorts, and ranged in occupation from domestic staff to middle-level management. Occupation was not recorded so as to assure respondents of anonymity. Measures Respondents were asked to rate a comprehensive set of mood states as hospitality industry work stress responses drawn from the work of Warr[14]. Respondents also completed the Spector[19] work locus of control scale, and Warr s reported job competence scale and reported job aspiration scale. Age and sex were also recorded by each respondent. Procedure Questionnaires were distributed to staff via human resource managers. Respondents mailed completed questionnaires directly to the author, thus ensuring both confidentiality and anonymity. One-hundred-and-fifty questionnaires were distributed, and 17 were not returned. This represents an acceptable non-response rate of approximately 11 per cent. Results Table I contains descriptive statistics associated with the major socio-demographic and personality variables included in this study. From this table it can be seen that the average age was approximately 28 years. It was also found that reported job aspiration levels were relatively high, whereas the mean locus of control was found to be at mid-range levels. Friedman analysis of variance (by ranks) procedures have been applied to the set of mood states. Results from Table II suggest that the mood states of cheerfulness and enthusiasm were the most highly rated ones. The mood state involving miserableness was rated least highly. Those three states have thus been made the focus of subsequent analyses. Table I. Descriptive statistics associated with major sociodemographic and personality variables Variable Mean standard Range Deviation Age 28.35 9.57 15-45 Perceived work satisfaction 3.68 0.98 1-5 Reported job competence 22.86 4.04 10-30 Reported job aspiration 23.38 4.23 12-30 Locus of control 36.47 7.32 20-53 Notes: Sex: Male = 33 (24.8 per cent) Female = 100 (75.2 per cent)

11 Table II. Analysis of variance (by ranks) for mood state ratings Mood type rank Mean ranks Calm 724.0 6.296 Relaxed 721.5 6.274 Cheerful 1,007.5 8.761 Enthusiastic 1,027.0 8.930 Contented 811.0 7.052 Uneasy 708.0 6.157 Gloomy 559.5 4.865 Miserable 464.0 4.035 Tense 807.0 7.017 Worried 685.5 5.961 Depressed 589.0 5.122 Optimistic 866.0 7.530 Note: Higher mean ranks represent more commonly occurring mood states Correlations between these three prominent mood states and major sociodemographic and perceptual measures have also been explored. It has been found that factors such as age and sex appear not to be associated with those major mood states; however, work satisfaction was found to be associated with each of the mood states. High levels of perceived work satisfaction have been found to be associated with high levels of cheerfulness and enthusiasm, and with low levels of miserableness. Tenseness was found to be unrelated to each of the sociodemographic and perceptual measures. Analyses of variance (by ranks) have also been used here so as to explore possible relationships between each of the major mood states and the personality measures of locus of control, job competence and job aspiration. No associations have been found between the mood states and locus of control. Significant associations have been found between each of the mood states, and both job competence and job aspiration. In regard to both job competence and job aspiration, it has been found that those individuals highest on cheerfulness and enthusiasm and lowest in miserableness recorded highest scores on both personality measures. It is thus the case that job competence and job aspiration are highest for individuals who are cheerful, enthusiastic and enjoying an absence of miserableness in their lives (see Table III). Cross-tabulations have also been employed in this study so as to understand further the relationships between these mood states and personality measures such as locus of control, job aspiration and job competence. It has Table III. Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance (by ranks) for prominent mood state responses by major personality dimensions Reported Locus of Reported job control job competence aspiration Cheerful mood state Never 1 64.42 68.58 118.35 2 103.03 77.70 111.30 to 3 91.98 92.37 98.08 4 100.79 99.84 88.62 All the time 5 127.00 143.41 76.38 H = 10.11* H = 19.71* H = 8.26 Enthusiastic mood state Never 1 69.50 62.28 123.53 2 108.08 74.44 103.46 to 3 93.02 84.08 97.09 4 98.52 109.22 84.89 All the time 5 119.47 126.25 99.77 H = 9.88* H = 25.79* H = 7.43 Miserable mood state Never 1 112.35 111.48 89.39 2 89.11 88.4 99.98 to 3 88.92 86.75 99.52 4 70.69 53.19 123.00 All the time 5 89.00 75.40 113.70 H = 12.369* H = 19.44* H = 6.412 Tense mood state Never 1 65.21 53.61 49.05 2 33.53 50.82 45.11 to 3 55.88 53.31 53.54 4 48.02 48.38 56.93 All the time 5 56.75 46.85 44.20 H = 13.21* H = 0.74* H = 2.7 Note: Analyses marked* represent significant statistical association been found that those individuals who rarely or never experience enthusiasm are less likely to demonstrate an internal locus of control and much more likely to demonstrate an external locus of control. Those who experience enthusiasm much of the time are more likely to have an internal locus of control and much less likely to have an external locus of control. Those less likely to be miserable tend to have higher job aspirations and higher job competence, whereas those individuals who report experiencing this mood state much more often are more likely to reveal lower levels of job aspiration and lower levels of job competence. Finally, it was revealed that lower job competence was less likely to be associated with never reporting tenseness, whereas higher job competence was found to be associated with

12 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT 7,6 never reporting tenseness. However, the reverse was found to be true for intermittent tenseness: occasional reports of tenseness appeared to be related to lower levels of job competence. Discussion This study has investigated a set of mood state indicators of work stress among hospitality industry employees. Also examined were major personality constructs as they may be related to perceived work stress. A number of major findings have emerged from this study. First of all, it has been revealed that measures such as perceived work satisfaction, the work ethic, job competence and job aspiration were all above average in this group. It may therefore be the case that emergent growing industries such as tourism/hospitality tend to attract younger, better-motivated and more ambitious individuals than do other more traditional or less economically healthy industries. It has also been found that hospitality industry employees tend to be more positive in their mood state work stress ratings, with positive mood types such as cheerfulness and enthusiasm most highly rated and negative mood types such as gloominess and miserableness most lowly rated. It was found, though, that being tense as a mood response to hospitality work received a relatively high rating. This result may well indicate an attendant anxiety response among workers which could eventually lead to diminished achievement and unhappiness among individuals, and thus to a diminution in the performance of the organization. Analyses have also revealed that the major explanatory personality variables involved job competence and job aspiration. Higher levels of job competence have been found to be associated with both cheerful and enthusiastic mood states, whereas lower levels of the mood states involving miserableness and tenseness were found to be associated with higher job competence. Higher levels of job aspiration were also found to be associated with higher levels of cheerfulness and enthusiasm and lower levels of miserableness. It is worth noting no association was found between tenseness and job aspiration. It may thus be the case that tenseness among employees leads on to a reduction in job competence, but does not necessarily inhibit the aspiration to attain better performance or positions. Further analysis of personality dimensions and mood states by means of cross-tabulational analyses has revealed that an external locus of control is associated with reports of never experiencing enthusiasm, whereas reports of enthusiasm most of the time were found to be associated with an internal locus of control. Thus staff enthusiasm appears to be closely related to feelings of being in control of one s destiny. Moreover staff who believe that at work they have lost or are unable to attain some reasonable measure of self-direction in their work operations appear to lose almost all enthusiasm. Crosstabulation analyses involving feelings of miserableness and the personality measures of job competence and job aspiration have also revealed some important associations. Lower levels of job competence have been found to be associated with feelings of miserableness much of the time. Higher levels of job aspiration have been found to be associated with never having feelings of miserableness. Thus individuals who do not perceive that their employment is causing such a long-standing feeling are more likely to report competence in their work functions and aspire to higher levels of work performance and achievement. It may thus be concluded that such a work-stress related mood state has significant implications for the functioning of individuals. Those individuals who find themselves experiencing an emotion such as miserableness which they believe has been engendered by a work context appear to experience a severe diminution in personal effectiveness. Such a situation can have severe negative implications for both the employee and the organization for which he/she works. The final cross-tabulational analysis involved feelings of tension and job competence. The mood state of tenseness was found to be rated reasonably highly by many employers, as high as a number of the more positive mood states such as optimism. The final analysis revealed that higher job competence was found to be associated with both never experiencing tension and occasionally experiencing tension. These results may suggest that there are two separate groups of individuals here, some of whom report no tenseness from their job and another group who report occasionally and sometimes experiencing tension. These latter individuals would seem to be revealing a level of work anxiety which may not yet have interfered in a major sense with the quality of their work or affected their perceived work satisfaction, but which nevertheless many be a concern to them and which may eventually lead on to other mood states such as miserableness. Such a situation may thus be a precursor for performance impairment and loss of productivity. This study has sought to further the study of work stress within the context of the tourism/hospitality industry. A number of important findings have emerged from this study in regard to both positive and negative workrelated mood states. Major personality dimensions such as job competence, job aspiration and internal locus of control have been found to be related to positive mood states such as cheerfulness and enthusiasm, with the implication that for a number of individuals tourism/ hospitality employment would seem to be associated with positive and beneficial personality dispositions. Results from this study have, however, also revealed some negative findings regarding tenseness among tourism/

13 hospitality industry employees, including among those demonstrating higher levels of job competence. While such findings may not be surprising for an industry which expects very high standards of performance and accomplishment from all those involved in the industry, the findings may none the less serve as a warning or signal to management. Management in tourism/ hospitality industry organizations should be aware of the possibility of stress among all workers, including those who are regarded as the most effective employees. Effective managerial responses in the form of optional and confidential stress reduction programmes may quickly emerge as cost-effective responses to absenteeism, reduced productivity and staff turnover. Finally a reduction of stress among staff in a people-oriented industry such as tourism/hospitality will be perceived quickly and positively by the customers of that organization. References 1. Cooper, C.L. and Payne, R., Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1988. 2. Fletcher, B.C., The epidemiology of occupational stress, in Cooper, C.L. and Payne, R., Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1988. 3. Spector, P. E., Behavior in organizations as a function of employees locus of control, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 91, 1982, pp. 482-97. 4. Rotter, J.B., Generalised expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement, Psychological Monographs, Vol. 80 No. 1, (Whole No. 609), 1966. 5. O Brien, G.E., Locus of control, work, and retirement, in Lefcourt, H.M. (Ed.), Research in Locus of Control, Vol. 3, Academic Press, New York, NY, 1983. 6. Smith, M.B., Competence and mental health, in Sells, S.B. (Ed.), The Definition and Measurement of Mental Health, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, DC. 7. Jahoda, M., Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health, Basic Books, New York, NY, 1985. 8. Bradburn, N.M., The Structure of Psychological Wellbeing, Aldine, Chicago, IL, 1989. 9. Bandura, A., Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change, Psychological Review, Vol. 84, 1977, pp. 191-215. 10. Herzberg, F., Work and the Nature of Man, World Publishing Company, Chicago, IL, 1966. 11. Maslow, A.H., The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, Penguin, London, 1973. 12. Csikszentmihalyi, M., Beyond Boredom and Anxiety, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 1975. 13. Kornhauser, A.W., Mental Health of the Industrial Worker, Wiley, New York, NY, 1965. 14. Warr, P., The measurement of well-being and other aspects of mental health, Journal of Occupations Psychology, Vol. 63, 1990, pp. 193-210. 15. Chappell, T. and Henry, S., Being polite becomes too stressful for some, The Australian, 27 March 1991. 16. Ross, G.F., Working at leisure: secondary school students occupational and training preferences for the tourism/hospitality industry, Leisure, Options Australian Journal of Leisure and Recreation, Vol. 1, 1991, pp. 21-2. 17. Ross, G.F., School leavers and their perceptions of employment in the tourism/hospitality industry, Journal of Tourism Studies, Vol. 2, 1992, pp. 28-35. 18. Ross, G.F., The Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality Press, Melbourne, 1994. 19. Spector, P.E., Development of a work locus of control scale, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 61, 1988, pp. 335-40. Further reading Cooper, C.L. and Marshall, J., Occupational sources of stress: a review of the literature relating coronary heart disease and mental ill health, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 49, 1978, pp. 11-28. Lefcourt, H.M., The locus of control as a moderator variable: stress, in Lefcourt, H.M. (Ed.), Research with the Locus of Control Construct, Vol. 2, Academic Press, New York, NY, 1983. Otto, R., Occupational stress among high school teachers, unpublished paper, Department of Sociology, La Trobe University, Australia, 1981. Payne, J.W., Contingent decision behavior, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 92, 1982, pp. 382-402. Payne, R.L. and Hartley, J., A test of a model for explaining the affective experience of unemployed men, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 60, 1987, pp. 31-47. Spillane, R., Occupational stress and organisational development: a new research strategy, paper presented at seminar 1983, Melbourne Organizational Development Network, University of Melbourne, 1983. Syrotnick, J.M. and D Arcy, C., Occupational stress, locus of control and health among men in a prairie province, Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, Vol. 14 No. 2, 1982, pp. 122-33. Glenn F. Ross is Senior Lecturer in Psychology, James Cook University of North Queensland, Cairns Campus, Cairns, Australia.