TEXTBOOK ON ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Peter Leyland LLB Course Director, University of North London Terry Woods Senior Lecturer, University of North London and Janetta Harden Principal Lecturer, CPE Course Director, University of North London BLACKSTONE PRESS LIMITED
Contents Preface Table of Cases Table of Statutes xi xiii xxv 1 Introduction, Theory and History 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definition 1.2.1 Functions and characteristics 1.2.2 Examples 1.3 Law and context 1.4 Red and green light perspectives 1.4.1 Red light theory 1.4.2 Green light theory 1.4.3 Conclusion 1.5 Administrative law and the origins of the modern state 1.5.1 Administrative law and the reality of the modern state 1.5.2 Conclusion 1.6 Judicial quietism and judicial activism 1.7 A grievance chain? 1.8 Further reading 2 Constitutional Concepts and Executive Power 16 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Parliamentary sovereignty 2.3 The Westminster and Whitehall models 2.4 The assertion of judicial authority 2.5 Separation of powers: nature and implications 2.5.1 The British Constitution 2.5.2 The United States Constitution 2.5.3 Judicial independence and the separation of powers 2.6 The rule of law 2.6.1 Definition 2.6.2 Dicey's theory 2.7 Conclusion 2.8 Further reading 3 The General Issue of Accountability: The Role of Parliament and MPs 27 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Ministerial responsibility 3.3 The Crichel Down affair 3.4 The political implications 3.5 Legal implications
vi Contents 3.6 The role of MPs 3.6.1 Established mechanisms 3.6.2 The new mechanisms: the select committee system 3.6.3 The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) 3.7 Parliamentary accountability of delegated legislation 3.7.1 Scrutiny 3.8 Further reading 4 The Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration and Other Ombudsmen 43 4.1 Preamble and definition 4.2 History and development of the Commissioner principle 4.3 Conflict with ministerial responsibility 4.4 The PCA's workload 4.5 Complaints procedure: the 'MP filter' 4.5.1 Introduction 4.5.2 Procedure on matters subject to investigation 4.6 Remit and limitations 4.6.1 Introduction 4.6.2 Schedules 2 and 3 4.7 What is maladministration? 4.7.1 Procedural and substantive maladministration: the question of 'merits' or 'quality' 4.7.2 Maladministration: further limitations 4.8 The procedures used by the PCA under ss. 7-11 of the Act 4.9 Right to recommend a remedy: completed investigations 4.9.1 The Fleet Street Casuals case 4.9.2 The Sachsenhausen case 1967 4.9.3 The Court Line affair 1974 4.9.4 The Barlow Clowes affair 1989 4.10 The extension of the ombudsman principle 4.10.1 Introduction 4.10.2 Health Service Commissioners 4.10.3 The Local Commissioners (Commissions for Local Administration) 4.10.4 The other commissioners 4.11 Citizen's Charter 4.12 Market solutions? 4.12.1 Next Steps/executive agencies 4.13 Evaluation and conclusions 4.13.1 Direct access 4.13.2 Limited powers 4.13.3 Throughput time and staffing 4.13.4 Market principles? 4.13.5 Conclusions 4.14 Further reading 5 Tribunals and Inquiries 72 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Tribunals 5.2.1 Statistics 5.2.2 The multiplicity of tribunals 5.2.3 Historical development 5.2.4 Why tribunals? 5.2.5 Courts and tribunals 5.2.6 Conclusion 5.3 Inquiries 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2 The Franks Committee and inquiries 5.3.3 Procedures 5.3.4 The role of the inspector 5.3.5 Natural justice or fairness? 5.3.6 Reasons for decisions 5.3.7 A note on the supervision of tribunals and inquiries 5.4 Further reading 6 Institutions and Powers 92 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The state, the Crown and the government 6.3 Institutions and agencies 6.3.1 Central government departments 6.3.2 Non-departmental public bodies 6.3.3 Local government 6.3.4 Police authorities 6.4 Powers 6.4.1 The royal prerogative 6.4.2 Legislation 6.4.3 European Community law 6.4.4 Delegated legislation 6.4.5 Control of delegated legislation 6.5 Conclusion
Contents 7 Introduction to Judicial Review 111 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Powers 7.3 Appellate/supervisory jurisdiction 7.4 Establishment of the doctrine 7.4.1 English and French administrative law contrasted 7.4.2 Continuing developments 7.4.3 Application for judicial review: statistics 7.5 Discretions and duties 7.6 Remedies 7.6.1 The old procedure 7.6.2 The new procedure 7.6.3 The importance of O'Reilly v Mackman 7.7 The public law/private law divide 7.7.1 Sources or powers test 7.7.2 What is a public authority? 7.7.3 Public bodies exercising private functions 7.8 Conclusion 7.9 Further reading 8 Illegality 131 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Simple ultra vires 8.2.1 The fairly incidental rule 8.2.2 Constitutional presumption 8.3 Abuse of power: general unreasonableness, purpose and relevance 8.3.1 Ulterior purpose 8.3.2 Improper purpose 8.3.3 Improper purpose further defined 8.4 Relevant and irrelevant considerations 8.4.1 What are 'relevant considerations': setting the parameters? 8.4.2 Fiduciary duty/electoral mandate 8.5 Fettering discretion: deciding by reference to a policy 8.5.1 The application of ex pane Kynoch 8.5.2 Balancing interests 8.5.3 Deciding by reference to a policy: circular cases 8.5.4 Fettering discretion by policy: conclusion 8.6 Fettering discretion by contract 8.7 Fettering discretion by estoppel 8.8 Fettering discretion by wrongful delegation 8.8.1 General principle 8.8.2 Central and local government 8.9 Errors of fact: errors of law 8.10 Partial invalidity: severance 8.11 Further reading 9 Unreasonableness and Irrationality 168 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Wednesbury: two types of unreasonableness 9.3 History of unreasonableness 9.3.1 Planning and licensing cases 9.3.2 The bounds of Wednesbury unreasonableness 9.3.3 The effect of statutory words 9.3.4 Variable standards: not total unreasonableness 9.4 Irrationality: Diplock's reformulation in GCHQ 9.4.1 Irrationality as a ground for review 9.4.2 Wednesbury unreasonableness/irrationality: when will it be upheld? 9.5 Proportionality 9.6 Conclusion 9.7 Further reading 10 Procedural Impropriety 183 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Procedural ultra vires 10.2.1 Mandatory and directory requirements 10.2.2 Procedural requirements 10.3 The case law explained 10.3.1 Prior notice 10.3.2 Right of appeal 10.3.3 The duty to consult 10.3.4 Duty to give reasons 10.3.5 Financial measures 10.4 A settled verdict? the common sense approach 10.5 Further reading
viii Contents 11 The Rules of Natural Justice I 191 11.1 Introduction 11.2 History 11.2.1 Establishing the rules 11.2.2 Natural Justice in abeyance 11.2.3 Judicial/administrative dichotomy 11.2.4 Modern development of the principles: Ridge v Baldwin 11.3 Aftermath of Ridge v Baldwin: the sliding scale 11.4 Legitimate expectation 11.4.1 Express undertaking 11.4.2 Taking account of a published policy 11.4.3 Consultation: the right to be heard 11.4.4 The right to continue to enjoy a benefit 11.5 Student cases 11.5.1 Academic fitness 11.5.2 College discipline 11.5.3 Admissions 11.6 Natural justice and national security 11.6.1 Wartime 11.6.2 Peacetime 12 Natural Justice II The Requirements of Natural Justice 214 12.1 The right to a fair hearing 12.1.1 Introduction 12.1.2 When will a hearing be granted? 12.1.3 The right to know the opposing case 12.1.4 The right to legal representation 12.1.5 Right to cross-examination 12.1.6 The duty to give reasons 12.1.7 Appeals 12.2 The rule against bias 12.2.1 Introduction 12.2.2 Direct pecuniary interest 12.2.3 Tests to determine the likelihood of bias 12.2.4 Political bias and decision making 12.2.5 Bias and participation intermingling of functions 12.2.6 Forming a concluding view in advance 12.2.7 Conclusion 12.3 Further reading 13 Error of Law on the Face of the Record 239 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Origins 13.3 What the record includes 13.4 Judicial control of tribunals and the Tribunals and Inquiries Act 1992 13.5 The effect of xheanisminic decision 13.6 Limits of the principle 13.7 Conclusion 13.8 Further reading 14 Exclusion of Judicial Review: Ouster and Time limit Clauses 248 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Subjective words 14.3 Three types of ouster 14.3.1 Finality 14.3.2 Ouster clauses 14.3.3 Time limit clauses 14.4 Conclusion 14.5 Further reading 15 Prerogative and Executive Power 261 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Definition: the distinction between Blackstone and Dicey 15.3 History and context 15.4 Judicial control over the prerogative 15.4.1 The prerogative and statute 15.4.2 The prerogative and the courts 15.5 New directions or tradition reinforced? 15.6 Further reading
Contents 16 Public Interest Immunity 276 16.1 What is public interest immunity? 16.2 Why is it important? 16.3 The development of the modern law 16.3.1 Duncan v Cammell Laird & Co. Ltd 16.3.2 The aftermath of Duncan v Cammell Laird 16.3.3 Conway v Rimmer 16.3.4 The impact of Conway v Rimmer 16.4 What is the public interest? The candour argument 16.5 Public interest immunity and the police 16.5.1 Significant retreat from the candour argument 16.5.2 Police communications 16.6 Contents and class claims: a summary 16.7 Public interest immunity in criminal cases 16.7.1 The Matrix Churchill case 16.8 Conclusion 16.9 Further reading 17 Filter Mechanisms: Rationing the Remedies Available 295 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Is it a public law matter? The public law/ private law divide 17.3 The requirement of locus standi 17.3.1 The Fleet Street Casuals case 17.3.2 Taxpayers and ratepayers 17.3.3 Adjusting the criteria according to the remedy 17.3 A Locus standi: group interests 17.4Discretionary remedies 17.5Exhausting alternative remedies 17.6 Time limits 18 The Remedies 307 18.1 Procedure for application 18.2 Public law remedies 18.2.1 Certiorari 18.2.2 Prohibition 18.2.3 Mandamus 18.3 Private law remedies 18.3.1 Injunctions 18.3.2 Declaration 18.3.3 Damages 18.4 Remedies: evaluation and conclusion 18.5 Further reading 19 Conclusion: The Effectiveness of the Various Methods of Redress for the Citizen 323 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Background 19.3 Non legal versus legal channels 19.3.1 Limitations on judicial review 19.3.2 Replying to the sceptics 19.4 The future 19.4.1 Pessimists 19.4.2 Optimists 19.4.3 The European Community dimension 19.4.4 Comparison with other systems 19.5 Recommendations: a topical agenda for reform 19.5.1 Substantive review 19.5.2 Freedom of information 19.5.3 Access and delay 19.5.4 The filter 19.5.5 Improving the remedies 19.5.6 More radical steps? 19.5.7 Improving administration 19.6 Further reading Glossary of Terms 336 Bibliography 339 Index 355