Lightweight Materials Understanding the Basics F.C. Campbell, editor Copyright 2012 ASM International All rights reserved www.asminternational.org Contents Preface ix CHAPTER 1 Introduction and Uses of Lightweight Materials 1 1.1 Today s Lightweight Materials............... 4 1.2 Aluminum Alloys..................... 4 1.3 Magnesium Alloys..................... 10 1.4 Beryllium.......................... 12 1.5 Titanium Alloys...................... 14 1.6 Titanium Aluminide Intermetallics............. 16 1.7 Engineering Plastics.................... 19 1.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites................ 21 1.9 Metal-Matrix Composites................. 27 1.10 Structural Ceramics.................... 28 1.11 Ceramic-Matrix Composites................ 29 CHAPTER 2 Aluminum Alloys 33 2.1 Applications........................ 36 2.2 Aluminum Metallurgy................... 38 2.3 Aluminum Alloy Designation............... 38 2.4 Aluminum Alloys..................... 40 2.5 Wrought Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys............ 41 2.6 Wrought Heat Treatable Alloys............... 47 2.7 Melting and Primary Fabrication.............. 54 2.8 Rolling Plate and Sheet................... 57 2.9 Extrusion.......................... 60 2.10 Forging........................... 62 2.11 Heat Treating........................ 67 2.12 Annealing......................... 73
iv / Contents 2.13 Forming.......................... 74 2.14 Casting........................... 85 2.15 Casting Alloys....................... 85 2.16 Machining......................... 101 2.17 Chemical Milling...................... 104 2.18 Joining........................... 105 2.19 Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys...... 119 CHAPTER 3 Magnesium Alloys 141 3.1 Magnesium Metallurgy................... 141 3.2 Magnesium Applications.................. 148 3.3 Magnesium Alloy Designation............... 149 3.4 Magnesium Casting Alloys................. 150 3.5 Die Casting Alloys..................... 153 3.6 Sand and Permanent Mold Casting Alloys......... 155 3.7 Wrought Magnesium Alloys................ 160 3.8 Sheet and Plate....................... 162 3.9 Extrusions......................... 162 3.10 Forgings.......................... 165 3.11 Forming.......................... 166 3.12 Magnesium Heat Treating................. 167 3.13 Joining Methods...................... 168 3.14 Machinability........................ 171 3.15 Magnesium Corrosion................... 172 3.16 Corrosion Protection of Magnesium............ 183 3.17 Protective Coating Systems................. 185 CHAPTER 4 Beryllium........................... 193 4.1 Beryllium Properties and Applications........... 194 4.2 Beryllium Powder Production Operations......... 195 4.3 Powder Consolidation Methods.............. 198 4.4 Beryllium Grades and Their Designations......... 200 4.5 Wrought Products and Fabrication............. 204 4.6 Forming Beryllium..................... 207 4.7 Beryllium Machining.................... 212 4.8 Beryllium Joining..................... 213 4.9 Aluminum-Beryllium Alloys................ 213 4.10 Beryllium Corrosion.................... 214 4.11 Corrosion-Protection Surface Treatments and Coatings.. 219 4.12 Health and Safety...................... 221
Contents / v CHAPTER 5 Titanium Alloys 223 5.1 Titanium Applications................... 224 5.2 Titanium Physical Metallurgy............... 227 5.3 Titanium Properties.................... 241 5.4 Processing of Titanium and Titanium Alloys........ 243 5.5 Titanium Primary Fabrication............... 247 5.6 Titanium Secondary Fabrication.............. 250 5.7 Titanium Powder Metallurgy................ 258 5.8 Directed Metal Deposition................. 259 5.9 Titanium Forming..................... 262 5.10 Superplastic Forming.................... 264 5.11 Heat Treating........................ 269 5.12 Titanium Casting...................... 273 5.13 Machining......................... 279 5.14 Titanium Joining...................... 284 5.15 Corrosion Resistance of Titanium and Titanium Alloys.. 292 CHAPTER 6 Titanium Aluminide Intermetallics 299 6.1 Titanium Aluminides.................... 302 6.2 Alpha-2 Alloys....................... 303 6.3 Orthorhombic Alloys.................... 305 6.4 Gamma Alloys....................... 306 6.5 Gamma Titanium Aluminide Applications......... 315 6.6 Processing Near-Gamma Alloys.............. 315 CHAPTER 7 Engineering Plastics 325 7.1 General Characteristics................... 325 7.2 Thermosets and Thermoplastics.............. 326 7.3 Metals versus Plastics................... 333 7.4 Effect of Fillers and Reinforcements............ 338 7.5 Temperature and Molecular Structure........... 341 7.6 Effect of Crystallinity................... 342 7.7 Effect of Viscoelasticity.................. 344 7.8 Thermal Properties..................... 344 7.9 Electrical Properties.................... 346 7.10 Environmental Factors................... 347 7.11 Categories of Engineering Plastics and Applications.... 349 7.12 Plastic Fabrication Processes................ 369 7.13 Joining Plastics....................... 376
vi / Contents CHAPTER 8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 385 8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composite Materials.. 389 8.2 Applications........................ 391 8.3 Laminates......................... 397 8.4 Fibers............................ 400 8.5 Product Forms....................... 413 8.6 Matrices.......................... 423 8.7 Fabrication Processes.................... 425 8.8 Thermoplastic Consolidation................ 437 8.9 Thermoforming....................... 440 8.10 Sandwich and Cocured Structure.............. 441 8.11 Integrally Cocured Unitized Structure........... 445 8.12 Machining......................... 447 8.13 Mechanical Fastening................... 447 8.14 Thermoplastic Joining................... 449 CHAPTER 9 Metal-Matrix Composites 457 9.1 Applications of Metal-Matrix Composites......... 457 9.2 Discontinuously Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites.. 461 9.3 Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum.......... 466 9.4 Processing of Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum... 469 9.5 Processing of Discontinuously Reinforced Titanium.... 484 9.6 Secondary Processing of Discontinuous Metal-Matrix Composites......................... 487 9.7 Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Metal-Matrix Composites.. 488 9.8 Processing of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Aluminum Composites......................... 493 9.9 Processing of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Titanium Composites......................... 495 9.10 Secondary Fabrication of Titanium-Matrix Composites.. 500 9.11 Processing of Other Metal-Matrix Composites....... 504 9.12 Fiber-Metal Laminates................... 506 CHAPTER 10 Structural Ceramics 511 10.1 Structural Ceramics.................... 513 10.2 Applications for Structural Ceramics............ 513 10.3 Properties of Structural Ceramics............. 519 10.4 Toughened Ceramics.................... 523 10.5 Design and Selection Considerations............ 528 10.6 Processing of Structural Ceramics............. 539 10.7 Joining of Ceramics.................... 560
Contents / vii CHAPTER 11 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 569 11.1 Discontinuously Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix Composites. 573 11.2 Applications for Discontinuously Reinforced Ceramic- Matrix Composites..................... 575 11.3 Continuous Fiber Ceramic-Matrix Composites....... 582 11.4 Applications for Continuous Fiber Ceramic-Matrix Composites......................... 586 11.5 Carbon-Carbon Composites................ 590 11.6 Applications for Carbon-Carbon Composites....... 595 11.7 Processing of Ceramic-Matrix Composites........ 598 CHAPTER 12 Selection Guidelines for Lightweight Materials 621 12.1 The Materials Selection Process.............. 621 12.2 Performance Characteristics of Materials......... 622 12.3 Relation of Materials Selection to Manufacturing..... 626 12.4 Costs and Related Aspects of Materials Selection..... 633 12.5 Methods of Materials Selection.............. 633 12.6 Conclusions......................... 638 12.7 Lightweight Materials Selection.............. 639 12.8 Lightweight Materials in the Transportation (Automotive) Industry........................... 660 12.9 Summary.......................... 670 Index 673