carbon-neutral architectural design Pablo La Roche CRC Press Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London NewYork CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor fit Francis Group, an informs business
Contents Preface Acknowledgments Introduction xi xv xiii Chapter 1 Buildings and Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1 1.1 Buildings and Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1 1.2 Anthropogenic Emissions and Climate Change 1 1.3 Effects of Anthropogenic Emissions on Climate Change 3 1.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Buildings 7 1.4.1 Operation Emissions (Oe) 9 1.4.2 Construction Emissions (Ce) 9 1.4.3 Emissions from Water (We) 10 1.4.4 Emissions from Waste (Wa) 10 1.5 Carbon-Counting Tools 10 1.6 Comparison of Carbon-Counting Tools 11 1.6.1 Selection of Carbon-Counting Tools 11 1.6.2 Comparing Emissions from Natural Gas and Electricity 12 1.6.3 Recommended Carbon-Counting Tools 14 Chapter 2 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design 17 2.1 Architectural Design Process 17 2.1.1 Traditional Architectural Design Process 17 2.1.2 Computer-Aided Architectural Design Process 18 2.2 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Process 18 2.2.1 Operation and Energy 23 2.2.2 Construction 23 2.2.3 Water 24 2.2.4 Waste 24 2.3 Implementation of the Carbon-Neutral Design Process in Academia 25 2.3.1 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Process in Beginning-Year Studios 25 2.3.2 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design in Advanced Studios 28 2.4 Integration 60 2.5 Carbon-Neutral Architectural Design Process in Practice 61
vj Contents Chapter 3 Thermal Comfort 75 3.1 Psychrometrics 75 3.2 Thermal Comfort 78 3.2.1 Heat Balance 79 3.2.2 Variables That Affect Thermal Comfort 82 3.3 Environmental and Comfort Indices 86 3.4 Comfort Models 89 3.4.1 Physiological Comfort Model 89 3.4.2 Adaptive Comfort Model 90 3.5 The Perception of Comfort 95 Chapter 4 Climate and Architecture 97 4.1 Climate 97 4.2 Climate and Architecture 97 4.3 Climate Zones 100 4.4 Climate Zones and Energy Codes 103 4.5 Climate Analysis 106 4.5.1 Building Bioclimatic Chart 106 4.5.2 Givoni's Building Bioclimatic Chart 108 4.5.3 Digital Climate Analysis Tools Ill 4.5.4 The Comfort Triangles Chart 114 4.6 Vernacular Architecture 114 4.6.1 Vernacular Architecture in Warm, Humid Climates 115 4.6.2 Vernacular Architecture in Warm and Dry Climates 119 4.6.3 Vernacular Architecture in Temperate Climates 124 4.6.4 Vernacular Architecture in the Cold Climates 128 4.7 Effects of Climate on Emissions 129 4.7.1 Assumptions for Simulations 130 4.7.2 Operation 130 4.7.3 Construction 133 4.7.4 Waste 133 4.7.5 Water 133 4.7.6 Transportation 134 4.7.7 Carbon Emissions in the Four Climates 134 Chapter 5 Solar Geometry 137 5.1 The Sun in the Sky Vault 137 5. J.1 Solar Declination and Hour Angle 137 5.1.2 Solar Azimuth and Altitude 139
Contents vii 5.2 Solar Charts 140 5.2.1 Vertical Sun Path Diagram 141 5.2.2 Horizontal Sun Path Diagram 142 5.3 Shading the Building 144 5.4 Design of the Shading System 146 5.4.1 Horizontal Shadow Angle 146 5.4.2 Vertical Shadow Angle 146 5.4.3 Shadow Angle Protractor 149 5.4.4 Example Design Process to Shade a South- Facing Window 150 5.4.5 Example Design of a Shading for a Southeast- Facing Window 155 5.5 Sundials 157 5.6 Site Analysis 158 5.7 Calculating the Impact of Radiation on Surfaces 161 5.8 Orientation of Buildings 162 Chapter 6 Heat Exchange through the Building Envelope 165 6.1 Heat Transfer through the Building Envelope 165 6.2 Heat Transfer in Buildings 171 6.2.1 Sensible Heat 171 6.2.2 Latent Heat 171 6.2.3 Radiant Heat 174 6.3 Heat Transfer by Conduction 174 6.3.1 Conductivity 175 6.3.2 Conductance 175 6.3.3 Resistance 176 6.3.4 Thermal Transmittance ([/-Value) 177 6.3.5 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity 178 6.3.6 Time Lag 179 6.3.7 Decrement Factor 179 6.3.8 Heat Flow by Conduction 180 6.3.8.1 Use of Insulating Material in Walls, Ceilings, and Floors 184 6.3.8.2 Use of Air Spaces in Walls, Ceilings, and Floors 185 6.3.8.3 Increase the Outer Surface Resistance of Walls and Roofs 185 6.3.8.4 Increase Thermal Resistance of Windows 185 6.3.8.5 Use of the Thickness of the Architectural Elements as a Regulator of the Building's Indoor Temperature 186
vjji Contents 6.3.8.6 Energy Storage Capacity of Materials 187 6.3.8.7 Reduce the Temperature Swing Using Materials with High Density and Thermal Capacity 187 6.3.8.8 Reducing the Surface Area of the Building 188 6.4 Heat Transfer by Radiation 190 6.4.1 Concepts 190 6.4.2 Factors That Affect Solar Radiation 191 6.4.3 Effects of Solar Radiation 194 6.4.4 Opaque Components 195 6.4.4.1 Use of Shading Devices 197 6.4.4.2 Types of Solar Protection 198 6.4.4.3 Building Volume 200 6.4.4.4 Opaque Surface Finish 201 6.4.4.5 Selection of Absorptive, Reflective, and Emissive Materials for Exterior Surfaces... 201 6.4.4.6 Building Components That Are Transparent to Solar Radiation 202 6.4.4.7 Appropriate Window Selection to Control Solar Radiation 202 6.4.4.8 Orientation of Buildings and Openings...207 6.4.4.9 Glazing-to-Surface 6.4.4.10 Use of Shading Ratio 209 Devices 209 6.5 Heat Transfer by Convection 210 6.5.1 Definition 210 6.5.2 Air Movement and Infiltration 211 6.5.3 Controlling the Exchange of Air 213 6.5.3.1 Seal the Building When Te > T, 214 6.5.3.2 Open the Building When Outdoor Temperature Is Lower than Indoor Temperature (T < 7",) 214 Chapter 7 Passive Cooling Systems 221 7.1 Definition of a Passive Cooling System 221 7.2 Classification of Passive Cooling Systems 221 7.3 Ambient Air as a Heat Sink (Sensible Component) 223 7.3.1 Comfort Ventilation 224 7.3.2 Nocturnal Ventilative Cooling 226 7.3.3 Smart Ventilation 231 7.3.4 Effect of Shading on Smart Ventilation 235 7.3.5 Alternative Methods to Night Ventilate: Green Cooling 236
Contents ix 7.4 Ambient Air as a Heat Sink (Latent Component: Evaporative Cooling) 242 7.4.1 Direct Evaporative Cooling 243 7.4.2 Indirect Evaporative Cooling 246 7.4.2.1 Givoni-La Roche Roof Pond at UCLA...250 7.4.2.2 Roof Ponds in a Hot and Humid Climate 253 7.4.2.3 Cal Poly Pomona Smart Roof Pond with Floating Insulation 254 7.4.2.4 Cal Poly Pomona Modular Roof Pond 255 7.4.2.5 University of Nevada, Las Vegas Roof Pond 256 7.5 The Upper Atmosphere as a Heat Sink: Radiant Cooling 258 7.5.1 Principles of Radiant Cooling System 258 7.5.2 UCLA Radiant Cooling System 260 7.5.3 Zomeworks Double-Play System 263 7.6 The Earth as a Heat Sink: Earth Coupling 263 7.6.1 Ground Cooling of the Building by Direct Contact 264 7.6.2 Ground Cooling of the Building by Earth-to-Air Heat Exchangers 265 7.6.3 Cooling the Earth 267 7.7 Applicability of Passive Cooling Systems 267 Chapter 8 Passive Heating 269 8.1 Applicability of Passive Heating 269 8.2 Control of Heat Loss 269 8.3 Passive Solar Heating 270 8.4 Types of Passive Heating Systems 273 8.4.1 Direct Gain Systems 273 8.4.2 Indirect Gain Systems 275 8.5 Effects of Design Strategies on Emissions 284 References 289 Index 301