Contents Preface Tribute to a great thermodynamicist Professor Lucien Borel v vii CHAPTER 1 Generalities and fundamental laws 1 l.a Cooling of a copper piece 1 l.b Shock of a container against a wall 3 l.c Work transfer relative to a closed system 6 l.d Mechanical power of a steam turbine 7 l.e Water power brake 9 l.f Irreversibility in a cooled compressor 10 l.g Irreversibility in a heat transmitter (heat exchanger). 12 l.h Cooling at constant pressure 14 1.1 Oxidation of glucose 15 l.j Work and heat transfer relative to a closed system 16 l.k Car battery 17 l.l Slowing down of a car 17 1.M Irreversibility during heating 18 CHAPTER 2 Closed systems and general thermodynamic relations 21 2. A Poly tropic compression 21 2. B Thermal factors 23 2.C Polytropic factor 24 2.D Isochoric specific heat 26 2.E Entropy change of a gas 27 2.F Enthalpy and entropy changes of a liquid 29 2.G Shock of a sphere in freefall 31 2.H Fundamental relations between state functions 33 2.1 Compression of oxygen according to different paths... 35 2. J Compression of air under different conditions 39 2.K Filling of a bottle 45 2.L Expansion without dissipation 46 2.M Experiment of Torricelli 47 2. N Relations of Maxwell 48 2.0 Isothermal compression 49 CHAPTER 3 Balances of extensive entities 51 3.A Water dispenser 51
xii CONTENTS 3.B Weighing of a receiver with flows 52 3. C Mixture of two liquid jets 54 3.D Emptying of a reservoir 56 3.E Propulsion of a boat 59 3.F Launch of a rocket 60 3.G Pipe link 62 3.H Reaction force on a bent pipeline 63 3.1 Thrust of a turboreactor 65 CHAPTER 4 Open systems in steady-state operation 67 4. A Stack of a thermal power plant 67 4.B Central heating plant of a building 70 4.C Inflating the tube of a tire 74 4.D Supercharging system of a Diesel engine 77 4.E Radial compressor 79 4.F Inlet diffuser of a turboreactor 84 4.G Pitot tube 86 4.H Flow in a channel of constant section 88 4.1 Flow in a simple nozzle 90 4. J Flow in a Laval nozzle 93 4.K Curtis turbine 95 4.L Single- or multi-stage compression 101 4.M Expansion in a turbine 103 4.N Compression system 106 4.0 Prandtl tube 107 4.P Dimensioning of a Laval nozzle 108 4.Q Mass flow measurement with an orifice 109 CHAPTER 5 Thermodynamic properties of matter 111 5. A State function of a perfect gas Ill 5.B Experiment of Gay-Lussac-Joule 113 5.C Joule-Thomson expansion 115 5.D Irreversible expansion of a perfect gas 119 5.E Reversible expansions of a perfect gas 123 5.F Work relative to an isothermal expansion 127 5.G Isochoric heating of water 130 5.H Equations of state 131 5.1 Fusion by compression 134 5. J Calorific measurements 136 5.K Ejector 140 5.L Joule-Thomson expansion of water (in liquid phase). 147 5.M Kinetic theory of gases 149 5. N Earth atmosphere 150 5.0 Equilibrium of a balloon 151 5.P Isobaric heating and partial vaporisation of water... 152
CONTENTS xi 5.Q Isochoric heating and isobaric cooling of a perfect gas 154 5.R Heat of vaporisation 155 CHAPTER 6 Mixture of ideal or perfect gases 157 6. A Characteristics of a town gas 157 6.B Compression of a mixture of nitrogen and of argon.. 159 6.C Heating and compression of combustion gas 161 6.D Mixture of gas flowing in a thermal energy transmitter (heat exchanger) 163 6.E Mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, in a hermetic enclosure 165 6. F Fabrication of synthetic air 168 6.G Expansions and mixing of gases 172 6. H Change of the concentrations of a mixture of nitrogen and of carbon dioxide 176 6.1 Mixing of air and of methane, in steady-state operation 178 6. J Characteristics of a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. 180 6.K Characteristics of a gas of a blast furnace 181 6.L Compression of a mixture of ethane and air 182 6.M Change of the composition and compression of a mixture of ethane and propane 183 6.N Introduction of nitrogen in a reservoir of hydrogen.. 185 6.0 Conditioning of fumes for drying 186 CHAPTER 7 Mixtures of a gas with a condensable substance 189 7. A Mixture of two mixtures 189 7.B Wet cooling tower 192 7.C Humidification of the air of a room 195 7.D Condensation on a wall 198 7.E Paraisothermal compressor 200 7. F Drying of a product 205 7. G Air conditioning of an indoor swimming pool 209 7. H Air conditioning of an office in summer 216 7.1 State of the air in a room 222 7. J Characteristics of atmospheric air 224 7.K Cooling of air by humidification 225 7.L Cold room 226 7.M Air conditioning of an office in winter 227 CHAPTER 8 Thermodynamic processes and diagrams 231 8. A Adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas 231 8.B Emptying of a compressed air tank 233 8.C Feeding a start-up turbine 235 8.D Expansion of steam in a turbine 238
xii CONTENTS 8.E Phase change of water 241 8. F Displacement of a piston by expansion of a gas 244 8. G Processes relative to the expansion of helium 247 8.H Theoretical cycle of a hot air engine 251 8.1 Theoretical cycle of a Diesel engine 256 8. J Typical thermodynamic processes 261 8.K Condensation of a refrigerant 264 8.L Phase change of carbon dioxide 265 8. M Production of compressed air 267 8.N Processes during a cycle 268 CHAPTER 9 Simple examples of application of the First and Second Laws 271 9. A Process of conversion from mechanical energy to internal energy (experiment of Joule) 271 9.B Expansion without transfer of mechanical energy (experiment of Gay-Lussac-Joule) 271 9.C Expansion with transfer of mechanical energy 272 9.D Energy conversion processes 273 9.E Evolution of a heterogeneous system 273 9. F Heat transfer between two bodies 274 CHAPTER 10 Energy and exergy analyses (thermomechanical processes) 275 10. A Reheater of a nuclear power plant 275 10. B Cold room of a refrigeration plant 277 10. C Condenser of a steam power plant 281 10. D Open and closed feedwater reheaters 284 10.E High pressure turbine of the power plant of Leibstadt 287 10.F Paraisothermal compressor of a refrigeration plant...289 10. G Cooled compressor 293 10.H Liquid air production plant 296 10.1 Cost of energy relative to a cogeneration plant 303 10. J Ejector 307 10.K Expansion without work transfer (Experiment of Gay-Lussac-Joule) 309 10.L Flow in an orifice 310 10.M Heat transfer between two parts 310 10. N Isochoric mixture of two gases 311 10.0 Mixing of several gases, in steady-state conditions... 312 10.P Isochoric heating 313 10.Q Isobaric heating 314 10.R Heating under steady-state conditions 315 10. S Thermal energy storage 316
CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER 11 Combustion 319 11. A Combustion of a light oil 319 ll.b Incomplete combustion of heavy oil 321 ll.c Combustion of natural gas 327 ll.d Dewpoint of combustion gases 333 ll.e Combustion chamber of a thermal power plant 335 11. F Industrial steam boiler 339 11. G Cooling and diffusion of a plume of combustion gas in the atmosphere 347 11. H Gasoline engine 351 11.1 Incomplete combustion 353 11. J Turboreactor of a airplane 357 ll.k Liquid fuel for a steam boiler 362 ll.l Bomb calorimeter 363 11. M Influence of the reference conditions on the heating value 365 ll.n Characteristics of a liquid fuel 366 11.0 Combustion of hexane 367 ll.p Combustion chamber of a gas plant 367 11. Q Thermal losses of a combustion chamber 368 CHAPTER 12 Examples of application of chapter 10 and 11 371 12.A Combustion chamber 371 12.B Steam boiler 372 12.C Internal combustion engine 376 CHAPTER 13 Thermodynamic cycles 379 13. A Beau-de-Rochas or Otto cycle 379 13. B Stirling cycle 383 13. C Ericsson's pseudo-cycle 386 13.D Cycle of a hot air engine 388 13.E Simple Diesel cycle 391 13.F Brayton cycle 394 13.G Rankine cycle 400 13.H Turboreactor cycle 402 13.1 Reversed Brayton cycle 409 13. J Carnot cycle 412 13.K Improved Diesel cycle 413 13.L Statoreactor cycle 415 13.M Superposed thermopump cycles 418 13.N Reversed pseudo-stirling cycle 419 13.0 Reversed pseudo-ericsson cycle 421 13.P Comparative study of theoretical power cycles 422 13.Q Comparative study of theoretical thermopump cycles 424 13.R Comparative study of theoretical frigopump cycles.. 426
xii CONTENTS 13. S Study of theoretical cogeneration cycles 428 CHAPTER 14 Applications: Examples from Chapters 10 to 13 431 14. A Atmospheric cooling of a condenser 431 14. B Industrial open cycle gas turbine 435 14. C Gas-steam combined cycle plant 447 14.D Closed cycle gas turbine, with two shaft lines 451 14. E System of compression thermopump (heating heat pump system) 456 14. F Compression frigopump system (cooling heat-pump system) 462 14. G Liquid helium production plant 469 14. H Turbocompression frigopump system 475 14.1 Simple steam power plant 480 14. J Steam cycle with reheat 481 14.K Steam power plant, with extraction 481 14.L Steam power plant, in quasi-steady-state operation,. 482 14.M Cogeneration steam power plant 483 14. N Open cycle gas turbine 484 14.0 Thermopump plant with a semi-hermetic compressor 487 14.P Frigopump system with subcooler 490 CHAPTER 15 Linear thermodynamics of irreversible phenomena 495 15. A Source of entropy in a bar 495 15.B Thermocouple 497 15. C Thermoelectric generator 499 15. D Thermoelectric module 506 15.E Thermoelectric thermopump 512