Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 45 Structural Alloys for Power Plants Operational Challenges and High-temperature Materials Edited by Amir Shirzadi and Susan Jackson AMSTERDAM BOSTON CAMBRIDGE HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO WP WOODHEAD PU BUSHING SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO ELSEVIER Woodhead Publishing is an iinprim of Elsevier
Contents Contributor contact details Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Preface xi xv xxi Part I Operational challenges and structural alloy requirements 1 1 Gas turbines: operating conditions, components and material requirements 3 A. W. James and S. Rajagopalan, Siemens Energy Inc., USA 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Overview of materials systems and their role in gas turbines 6 1.3 Operating conditions and materials selection 10 1.4 Critical degradation mechanisms, aging and monitoring 13 1.5 Materials performance assessment and life management 16 1.6 Materials limitations, challenges and future directions 17 1.7 Acknowledgements 20 1.8 Sources of further information and advices 20 1.9 References 20 2 Steam turbines: operating conditions, components and material requirements 22 S. Osgerby, Alstom Power, UK 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 High temperature cylinder components 23 2.3 Factors affecting the service life of high temperature components 27 2.4 Low temperature cylinder components 28 2.5 Factors affecting the service life of low temperature components 31
vi Contents 2.6 Conclusion 34 2.7 References 35 3 High temperature materials issues in the design and operation of coal-fired steam turbines and plant 36 F. Starr, Consultant, UK 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Recent power plant history and its lessons 38 3.3 Challenges of advanced plants 40 3.4 Thermodynamics and design of the steam and water circuits 44 3.5 Design and operation of furnace and boiler 48 3.6 Superheater design issues 53 3.7 Two shift cycling 60 3.8 Material issues in the development of advanced steam plants 62 3.9 Discussion 64 3.10 Conclusions 66 3.11 References 66 4 Nuclear power plants: types, components and material requirements 69 J. F. Knott, The University of Birmingham, UK 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 UK gas-cooled reactors: Magnox and advanced gascooled reactors (AGR) 74 4.3 The pressurised water reactor (PWR) 88 4.4 'Generation IV systems: the fusion reactor 95 4.5 Conclusion 99 4.6 References 100 Part II Structural alloys and their development 103 5 Austenitic steels and alloys for power plants 105 Y. Yin and R. Faulkner, Loughborough University, UK and F. Starr, Consultant, European Technology Ltd, UK 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 The Fe-C phase diagram and austenitic steels 106 5.3 Microstructure and properties of austenitic steels 108 5.4 Other problems with the use of austenitics 137 5.5 Modern Japanese alloys 142 5.6 Discussion and future work 146
Contents vii 5.7 Sources of further information and advice 147 5.8 References 148 6 Bainitic steels and alloys for power plants 153 M. J. Peet, University of Cambridge, UK 6.1 Introduction 153 6.2 Transformations in steels 156 6.3 Tempering heat treatment and service 173 6.4 Desirable properties for high temperature components used in power plants 176 6.5 Developments of bainitic power plant steels 178 6.6 Conclusion 182 6.7 References 183 7 Ferritic and martensitic steels for power plants 188 P. J. Ennis, University of Leicester, UK 7.1 Introduction 188 7.2 Metallurgical background 191 7.3 Power plant ferritic, bainitic and martensitic steels 196 7.4 Steam oxidation 209 7.5 Production and fabrication of power plant components 212 7.6 Power plant experience with most recently developed steels 214 7.7 Further development of power plant steels 215 7.8 Sources of further information and advice 216 7.9 References and further reading 217 8 Structural materials containing nanofeatures for advanced energy plants 221 W. Hoffelner, RWH consult GmbH, Switzerland 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Oxide dispersion strengthening (ODS) 224 8.3 Ferritic-martensitic ODS steels 226 8.4 ODS materials based on a non-ferrous matrix 231 8.5 Production of nanoparticles containing alloys and components 232 8.6 Components manufactured from ODS alloys 234 8.7 Properties of nanoparticle-containing steels 235 8.8 Other nanofeatures used to strengthen alloys for high temperature applications 238 8.9 Conclusion 242 8.10 Acknowledgement 243 8.11 References 243
viii Contents 9 Development of creep-resistant steels and alloys for use in power plants 250 F. Abe, National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), Japan 9.1 Introduction 250 9.2 Basic methods of strengthening steels and alloys at elevated temperatures 255 9.3 Development progress of creep-resistant steels and alloys 259 9.4 Degradation in creep strength of components subjected to elevated temperature 268 9.5 Advanced alloy design of creep-resistant steels and Ni-base superalloys to mitigate materials degradation 277 9.6 Conclusion and future trends 289 9.7 References 290 10 Development of advanced alloys with improved resistance to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in power plants 294 S. Prakash, Indian Institute of Technology, India 10.1 Introduction 294 10.2 Overview of corrosion and stress corrosion 297 10.3 Development of alloys 301 10.4 Creep-fatigue behaviour of steels and superalloys 308 10.5 Advanced design and use of alloys 309 10.6 Future trends 314 10.7 References and further reading 314 11 Design and material issues in improving fracture/ fatigue resistance and structural integrity in power plants 319 J. F. Knott, The University of Birmingham, UK 11.1 Introduction 319 11.2 Engineering design and brittle fracture 321 11.3 Linear elastic fracture mechanics 322 11.4 Yielding fracture mechanics: the failure assessment diagram (FAD) 324 11.5 Brittle fracture in power plant steels 327 11.6 Inter-granular fracture in turbine disc steel 329 11.7 Potential concerns in nuclear reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels 333 11.8 Fatigue: S-N curves, Miner's Law, stress concentrators 335 11.9 Fatigue crack propagation 340
Contents ix 11.10 Fatigue induced by thermal strain 343 11.11 Fatigue crack growth and interactions 345 11.12 Conclusion 350 11.13 References 353 12 Radiation damage to structural alloys in nuclear power plants: mechanisms and remediation 355 G. S. Was, University of Michigan, General Electric Global Research, USA USA and P. L. Andresen, 12.1 Introduction 355 12.2 Overview: the radiation damage event 356 12.3 Physical degradation 360 12.4 Stress-related degradation 370 12.5 Environmental factors in cracking 381 12.6 Environmental factors in fracture 385 12.7 The response of stainless steel to irradiation 389 12.8 The response of pressure vessel steels to irradiation 402 12.9 The response of advanced alloys to irradiation 407 12.10 Conclusion 410 12.11 Sources of further information and advice 411 12.12 References 412 13 The use of advanced alloys to resolve welding problems in power plants 421 D. J. Abson, TWI, UK and G. Mathers, Consultant, UK 13.1 Introduction 421 13.2 Parent steel behaviour and the analysis of creep rupture data 427 13.3 Welding and the resulting residual stresses 428 13.4 Advantages and limitations of particular alloys 433 13.5 Advanced design and use of newer alloys 436 13.6 Future trends 436 13.7 Sources of further information and advice 442 13.8 References and further reading 442 14 Modelling creep in nickel alloys in high temperature power plants 447 H. V. Atkinson and S. P. A. Gill, University of Leicester, UK 14.1 Introduction 447 14.2 Empirical methods 449 14.3 Semi-empirical models 451 14.4 Neural network approaches 453
x Contents 14.5 Physics-based approaches 455 14.6 Conclusion 474 14.7 References 474 Index 479