Developing a methodology for the communication of climate services at scale through intermediaries for farmer communities in Africa and South Asia

Transcription

1 Developing a methodology for the communication of climate services at scale through intermediaries for farmer communities in Africa and South Asia White paper for CCAFS Expert Workshop June 2013 Nairobi, Kenya Sumiko May, Arame Tall 0

2 Accronyms ANACIM - Agence nationale de l'aviation civile et de la météorologie du Sénégal ARRIN - Agriculture, Research and Rural Information Network CCAFS - Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security CC - Climate Change CFS - Climate Field Schools CELAC - Collecting and exchange of local agricultural content CGIAR - Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CKW - Community Knowledge Worker CSP - Climate Services Partnership DfID - Department for International Development GFCS - Global Framework for Climate Services HFP - Humanitarian Futures Programme ICT - Information and Communication Technology IMD - India Meteorology Department SFS - Science Field Shops ToT - Training of Trainers NARS - National Agricultural Research System WMO - World Meteorological Organisation RCCC - Red Cross Climate Centre RIS - Rural Information Support 1

3 1. Introduction This paper attempts to review and synthesize good practice methods, tools and approaches in training intermediaries to effectively communicate climate and weather forecasts, advisories and early warning messages to vulnerable communities at scale, as well as to support communities to make informed agricultural and livelihood decisions that will increase their resilience to the impacts of climate variability and related changes. The paper draws on lessons learnt from past and present experiences using a range of tools, methods and approaches to train intermediaries to play the role of the missing link in the application and communication of climate forecasts. Examples of more successful methodologies and tools - those that have managed to support intermediaries to co-design and communicate climate services that meet the needs of the users - will be discussed alongside less-successful examples of case studies that have been seen to fail. The findings of this paper will provide a solid foundation of evidence on which to base workshop discussions. The Nairobi expert workshop on Climate Services Communication CGIAR s research programme on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), under its Theme Adaptation through Managing Climate Risks, has identified the need for better integration of climate information services into decision-making at the local level. One meaningful conduit to achieve better-tailored and widely communicated climate services for farmers is by working though intermediaries - public extension services, media professionals, rural radios and community-based organizations. The use of intermediaries has been identified as key to effectively conveying advanced climate information and services at scale to prepare and empower smallholder farmers to anticipate and cope with climate shocks and manage climate-related risks throughout the season. The development of appropriate tools to strengthen the capacity and train these intermediaries to effectively communicate climate information and advisory services is crucial. Towards development of good training tools for intermediaries on climate services communication, a group of experts have been invited to participate in a CCAFS Expert Workshop in Nairobi, June 2013, to draw on past experiences and best practice for the development of materials to train intermediaries to communicate actionable climate advisory services. The workshop seeks to identify: Who make the best intermediaries- extension workers, NGO field staff, farmer s group leaders, community leaders etc? What is the best approach for communicating delivering a range of climate advisory services to ensure that information; content, scale and format meet farmer-level decision-making needs? How to effectively train intermediaries to ensure the timely 2

4 communication of information and to understand which communication channels are best for specific at risk user groups; What are the best tools to train intermediaries to understand both climate information and appreciate a range of user information requirements; How to train intermediaries to communicate and facilitate a two-way communication process between farmers and other specific livelihood user groups with those who generate and communicate scientific information, making sure the information provision, aims, methods and schedule are informed by local needs; How can intermediaries be trained to address gender and equity considerations in the communication of climate services for farmers; How to train intermediaries to convey understanding of the probabilistic nature of forecasts, and build resilience within at risk communities for taking decisions in situations of uncertainty? The overall objective is to develop skeleton training modules that can be implemented and piloted in newly emerging climate service provision projects in CGIAR CCAFS benchmark research sites across Africa and South Asia and by partner organisations and stakeholders involved in the Nairobi expert workshop. To inform workshop discussions, the present white paper scopes experiences in training and developing the capacity of intermediaries to communicate climate services at scale, by building human infrastructure for the effective communication of climate services to at risk communities. 2. Background Rationale of Nairobi Workshop Emerging data projects a global increase in the frequency and impact of climate related natural disasters (DFID, 2011; Pelling, 2003; IPCC, 2012); a trend that is likely to continue as climate change increases the threat of disasters, such as droughts and floods (IPCC, 2012). This includes the multitude of everyday events that are generated by varied local conditions interacting with seasonal and other variability. Such extensive risk has been attributed with the majority of people affected by disasters (ISDR 2009, 2011), yet falls outside the remit of big science modelling and large policy approaches to disaster risk management. It is important in this context that farmers are empowered to meet the uncertainty they have to manage everyday, and that is likely to grow with a changing climate, uncertainty that can manifest in everyday as well as catastrophic events. It is important, therefore, to build communities capacities so that they are less vulnerable, more resilient, and better able to manage rising climate risks, and indeed to enhance development opportunities through better planning. Many parts of the world are already experiencing changes in seasonal patterns and timing, and in particular the intensity of rainfall (CARE 2012). With an estimated 70 percent of the world s poor thought to be reliant on agriculture as their primary source of food (Selvaraj, 2012) increasingly unpredictable climatic conditions are impacting livelihoods and food security of millions of people who rely 3

5 on the land to sustain themselves and their families. Furthermore, indigenous knowledge and traditional coping practices based on the events of the past can no longer be solely relied upon due to new dimensions and parameters associated with increasing climate uncertainty and variability, further exacerbating farmer s vulnerabilities. As such climate services are increasingly being recognised as an important part of the global adaptation agenda and that the effective adaption to climate variability and climate change is dependent on access to climate information (CARE, 2012 and Ambenje et al. 2012). Vulnerable communities need to be able to access relevant, actionable climate information and advisory services and understand how to use these services to inform their decisionmaking so that they are able to effectively manage their risk and enhance their adaptive capacity (Walker et al and Lucio, 2012). The Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) has recognised the importance of needs-based climate services [as an effective means of] realising socio-economic benefits by enabling communities, businesses, organisations and governments to adapt through informed choices in managing the associated risks and opportunities (Grimes, 2012, p.5). However, many challenges arise when trying to communicate climate information and services and their possible application to vulnerable smallholder farmer communities. Difficulties in dissemination and access to information, as well as the inappropriate presentation of information in formats that are difficult for farmers to understand and interpret are examples of just a few such challenges (Tall et al. 2012, Hansen et al. 2011, Boer et al. 2010). The traditional model of communicating climate and weather information is for television or radio presenters to read the forecast at the end of the news. However, rarely does this effectively communicate uncertainties and information, and it is often not local or relevant enough for farmers to use. This results in misunderstanding of forecast information and loss in trust with forecast services. Locally the misinterpretation of information can lead to maladaptation and when local observations do not match received understanding of forecasts, a loss of confidence in scientific information. One way in which many of these challenges can be addressed is through the use of intermediaries. Intermediaries are individuals specifically trained to communicate climate information and provide recommendations on how information can be used to inform decision-making (Boer et al. 2010). They may be organized through dedicated agencies or as part of wider scientific information provision services (agricultural extension for example). It is important to ensure that intermediaries are trained to an appropriate standard to build confidence and an effective dialogue between the scientists and the farmers and so ensure the sustainability and efficiency of programmes (Stigter, and Winarto, 2013 and Boer et al. 2010). Recognising the important role that intermediaries play CGIAR s CCAFS programme aims to develop materials to train intermediaries so that they can effectively and efficiently disseminate and relay practical climate information and services in a way that is taken-up and applied and blended with local knowledge and practices. 4

6 This builds on early work that culminated in a December 2012 CCAFS workshop in Senegal on Scaling-Up of Climate Services for Farmers in Africa and South Asia (more at This workshop was aimed at identifying gaps in the design, delivery and effective use of climate information and services. The objective was to identify linkages that could be made to close these gaps. During this workshop five key challenges were identified: 1. Salience ensuring that the information; content, scale and format, match what is needed for farmer-level decision-making. 2. Access timely access to remote communities. 3. Legitimacy ensuring farmers own climate services and shape their design and delivery. 4. Equity inclusion of women, the poor and socially marginalised. 5. Integration using climate information as part of a larger package of agricultural support to facilitate the understanding and use of the information so that farmers can act on it (Tall et al. 2013). Discussions at this workshop identified the use of intermediaries as an effective means of addressing many of these issues and reaching marginalized communities at scale with climate information and advisory services. How to support intermediaries, frontline workers and boundary organisations to effectively play this role is the next question and the aim of upcoming Nairobi workshop to be held in June Nairobi Workshop Objectives and Anticipated Outcomes: Based on learning from past and present examples, the Nairobi workshop (writeshop) hopes to achieve: The consensual identification of best practice tools, approaches and methods to train intermediaries, frontline workers and boundary organisations to enable them to serve as the missing link between at risk communities and climate forecasters. The objective is to work towards the development of a template - a best practice training tool kit to be used to train carefully selected intermediaries. These desired Training-of- Trainers (ToT) materials will act as guidelines with tools and methods to be used by intermediaries to: Understand available climate forecasting; Interpret the practical application of the information for farmers and Communicate this information to the respective communities they serve. It is important that training materials clearly advocate a two-way communication so that climate scientists are able to learn about traditional practices and knowledge. This exchange is important to ensure that the information produced takes into consideration local climate variability (eg micro-climates) and helps scientist to tailor the type and format of information that they produce so that it is relevant to the people they aim to serve. As such a blending of both scientific and indigenous knowledge is crucial. The ultimate hope is that by producing such training materials intermediaries will have the knowledge and skills required to communicate information that will improve farmer access to available climate 5

7 advisory services and early warning messages, and strengthen their capacity to use the information to make informed decisions that will help increase their resilience by reducing their risk and the impact of climate variability / change. This requires intermediaries to reconsider their roles. It is a shift from working to provide information based on an assumption of farmer ignorance to working with farmers to better appreciate the existing information systems they work with, and to see how best scientific knowledge can fit within or alongside these systems. The aim is to move farmers and intermediaries perspective on scientific information from a position of its being external and superior to local knowledge to its being an integral part of local knowledge systems. This broadens considerably the range of personal and professional skills required of intermediaries who will have to consider a range of approaches in individual contexts from directive information dissemination to thick co-production. Underpinning this requires awareness of and the kinds of relationships intermediaries need to build and maintain with farmers. It highlights the importance of farmers as equal partners and indeed as active champions in this process of climate information and action co-production. 3. Methodology A clear understanding of how to effectively train intermediaries to communicate climate information / science to farmers groups was investigated by carrying out a series of interviews and surveys, alongside a review of exiting literature. Literature review - An initial review of the literature was carried out in order to form a basis for the research. The review identified key case studies of projects and programmes that were involved in training and building the capacity of intermediaries to communicate climate services to communities in a two-way process. In preparation for this paper a roster of these projects and case studies was created (see Appendix 1). Interviews - Following the literature review eleven key informant interviews were carried out with specialists identified from the roster of case studies. Interviews were informal, semi-structured and used open questions. The majority were conducted via Skype using an interview guide (Appendix 2). The interview guide was created based on existing literature and research in order to ensure that key issues were addressed in each interview. The questions were specifically aimed at understanding the detailed methodologies and tools that scoped projects used to train and develop capacity of frontline workers to understand and in turn communicate climate advisories and early warning messages to vulnerable communities. Survey questionnaire to scope case studies - In addition to the interviews a survey questionnaire template (Appendix 3) was designed to collect additional data on specific methodologies. This template aimed to collect precise methodological data to help inform the workshop and was circulated via . Participants were identified by Emma Visman (HFP) and added to by James Hansen and Arame Tall. A snowballing technique to identify additional contacts was also used. 6

8 It is important to note that the assessment of these methodologies is primarily and in many cases solely by self-assessment and there are few opportunities to substantiate the claims of those that have designed and implemented the methodologies. 4. Defining a Methodology to communicate climate services at scale to farmer communities through intermediaries in Africa and South Asia Summary of lessons learnt: Initial findings suggest that it is not practical to use a single methodology or tool when training intermediaries, as decision-making processes can be extremely complex and vary widely between regions, countries and even within communities. Many respondents argued that rigid tools or methodologies could lead to an environment not conducive to learning or building trust. As such it would be more appropriate to establish a set of guidelines and considerations that should be referred to, rather than strict training tools to be adhered to. Interviews also highlighted the importance of two-way communication, careful selection of intermediaries and the participatory exchange of knowledge and practices. Based on the research Figure 1 proposes an approach that can be referred to when training intermediaries. The following section then outlines a set of considerations for each stage of the suggested approach to training intermediaries. Figure 1. Suggested approach to training intermediaries 7

9 Identification of intermediaries: As illustrated in the proposed approach outlined in Figure 1 the identification of appropriate intermediaries was acknowledged as a key factor in the successful training of intermediaries. Figure 2. Considerations in identification of intermediaries Throughout the research, when respondents were asked to explain reasons behind selecting particular intermediaries for their programmes and whom they considered would make the most effective intermediary, the majority of respondents felt that it was difficult and not helpful to select one particular person. Instead it was more important to consider the attributes that they must have (see Figure 2). Based on these particular attributes and considering the culturally specific context of each programme an effective intermediary can then be identified. One respondent illustrated this point perfectly by offering an example of a project in Benin where the selection of intermediaries was being discussed with the community. Instead of lead farmers or agricultural extension workers, farmers proposed the use of singers as the most effective intermediary to facilitate communication, due to the important role they play in Benin culture. In Benin singers are highly respected and trusted and their status / fame means that they are able to access a wide audience, traditionally songs are important in the transmission of knowledge. In another example high-ranking government officials were proposed, as culturally locals respected and trusted authority and an official status represented an authority that they felt was there to look after them. Obviously this particular example is not appropriate in all contexts, especially in politically volatile countries. These examples illustrate the importance of including the community and considering the cultural context of each programme in the selection of intermediaries. 8

10 It should be noted that the majority of case studies did not use just one type of intermediary, but instead trained a diverse range of intermediaries, ranging from extension workers, NGO field staff, farmers group leaders, officials from government ministries etc. Using a diverse set of intermediaries can ensure that climate services and advisories can be communicated through a number of different channels at different scales. In the cases where respondents identified a specific group of people who they felt would make suitable intermediaries the reasons behind their choices nevertheless related to the characteristics or attributes outlined in Figure 2. One respondent identified extension workers as effective intermediaries. They found that extension workers were usually already highly trained, having been trained when extension services in Africa had better resources and funding - a number of respondents mentioned the unfortunate scaling back of extension services across Africa. Ex-extension workers are also often older members of the community who have earned a great deal of respect and trust due to their activities in the communities. Crucially they are often more settled and less likely to leave and take away their knowledge and training. Their experiences have enabled them to develop an understanding of the type of climate information most useful to farmers and in what format this information can be most successfully communicated and operationalised. NGO field staff were also identified as effective intermediaries due to their relatively high level of understanding of the local context. However, there were issues of trust, continuity and agenda. Many field staff were not involved in the long-term strategies of programmes and were part of an organisation that often had their own agendas. A component of the training should be to encourage intermediaries to reflect on their motivations as well as their positionality within the farmer communities they work. For example are the motivations of the intermediaries to achieve a higher social status that comes from being a teacher or a leader. A clear understanding of their personal motivations and how their social-position and presentation impacts the effectiveness of their role as an intermediary - what barriers and opportunities their current self-image and perceived position may have and how this shapes their work. They need to be able to think critically on what their assumptions are about this role and to understand where they are positioned on a continuum between teachers and learners. While sometimes it is appropriate for intermediaries to present themselves as teachers, more often it is more productive if they communicate as equals by adopting a co-production approach. As an intermediary they need to acknowledge the different approaches that can be used to better engage with farmers. There is often an assumption that more traditional didactic or teaching roles are best. However, a co-production approach can improve conversations on both sides and facilitate a blending of scientific and locally produced knowledge for a common objective. By encouraging intermediaries and farmers to self-reflect and leave aside their assumptions of hierarchy and prejudice it is possible to engage in more open and productive discussions and exchanges. Therefore, it is important to recognise the value in finding intermediaries who understand an advantage in being able to flexibly shift from being teachers to co-producers of information based on what is appropriate in the specific context. 9

11 Once suitable intermediaries have been identified they need to be trained. A high level of training was widely recognised as essential in ensuring the correct interpretation and operationalisation of the climate information received. Intermediaries need to understand scientific climate information and how it affects vulnerable farmers at the local level. They must be able to effectively communicate this information, ideally in the local language, to farmers and be able to explain how this information can be used to inform decision-making to help manage risk. Crucially intermediaries must also be able to facilitate a two-way exchange of information and communicate local knowledge, practices and information requirements to the climate scientist. Participatory training workshops: Participatory training workshops and exchanges were consistently acknowledged as the most effective approach for training intermediaries. Meteorological and agricultural specialists, farmers and selected intermediaries are invited to an often informal exchange of information and ideas. During these workshops intermediaries learn how best to communicate between the different groups. Such participatory exchanges were seen as a way to build continuity and trust and enhance collaborations. Furthermore, such an approach is able to facilitate the aforementioned co-production and blending of information, in a way that identifies and responds to farmer needs in climate services above and beyond traditional sources of forecast information. Figure 3 illustrates a number of tools that have been used to train intermediaries within the aforementioned exchanges. Figure 3. Participatory tools used within the framework of a participatory exchange workshop. 10

12 Topics and activities that have been incorporated into training activities for intermediaries include: Understanding uncertainty and probability, Communicating uncertainty and probability, Training in different tools / games to communicate climate information, Understanding and interpreting climate science, Translating climate science, Understanding and knowledge of traditional practices and information, Understanding the information needs of farmers - what time scales and in what formats information should be provided, Application of climate science to inform decision-making processes of farmers to reduce risk, Facilitating and encouraging a two-way exchange and blending of both scientific and traditional knowledge, Equity training should be provided in the importance of equity so that services do not discriminate against marginalised groups. It should be ensured that women, the poor, elderly etc. have equal access to and understanding of climate information and services, Training on appropriate information dissemination and communication channels should also be provided. The Early Warning > Early Action workshops conducted in Africa from (see Tall et al., forthcoming) provide a prime example of participatory training workshops that have brought together vulnerable communities, national technical departments from climate sensitive sectors, communication intermediaries and forecasters, in a national dialogue to identify end user needs in climate services and co-design services that respond to these needs. The aim of these workshops was to bridge the gap between the various communities of practice (climate forecasters, agricultural researchers, communicators and communities at risk) and bring them to identify their common missions in the national chain for linking information with action. As part of these Early Warning > Early Action workshops, participatory or scenario games and experiential learning tools have been designed as pedagogical strategies to engage workshop participants, break ice between different communities of practice and aid the gap bridging endeavour. The games aim to encourage communities and experts to work together to identify possible solutions and means of supporting end users in managing climate risk. These games are also used to train intermediaries who can continue employing them in vulnerable communities to facilitate the translation of complex, often technical climate information into a format that can be easily understood and applied by vulnerable farmers and policy planners. Skilled intermediaries play a key role in generating an environment of openness and trust to ensure that all participants are comfortable and feel secure enough to share and explore each other s experiences. This is particularly important as intermediaries often work in communities and environments where discrimination against gender, religion, class and status creates significant challenges. 11

13 EW>EA Workshop / Modules List and Training Curriculum: 1) Climate Change: what is it? Causes and consequences, CC projections for country 2) The anatomy of a seasonal forecast: uses, applications and limitations 3) Probabilities 101 and uncertainties in forecasting 4) The anatomy of mid- and short-range weather forecasts (24h up to 10days): uses, applications and limitations 5) Agro-meteorological advisories: uses, applications and limitations 6) Monitoring & Forecasting of river basin floods: uses, applications and limitations 7) Vulnerability mapping using remote sensing: uses, applications and limitations Box 1: Training modules dispensed in small groups of climate scientists-users during Bridging Early Warning > Early Action workshops. Source: Tall et al, forthcoming. Examples of participatory games that aim to achieve this training includes the early-warning to early-action game, designed by Parsons School of Design in collaboration with the Red Cross / Red Crescent Climate Centre 1. In partnership with the Humanitarian Futures Program, the RCCC, CGIAR- CCAFS, CDNK, University of Sussex, University of Liverpool, ANACIM and the Met Office this game has been piloted in a number of workshops exchanges, for example in Senegal, Kenya and eight other countries across Africa. This decision-making game is intended to introduce different forecasts and scenarios to encourage people to think about what actions they would take based on the information that they have just received. The game starts by presenting a plausible forecast. Participants are then encouraged to select an appropriate response from a pre-designed set of action cards or to propose their own action. This process makes the participant think about their own experiences and decide what actions they would take, considering their own unique circumstances and capacities. In the example of Senegal over 300 new action cards were designed and shared by participants (Suarez et al. 2012). This game can be played around a table with 5 or 6 participants selecting and proposing their own actions or even at a community level, with members of the community discussing and voting on what actions are best to take. It has been employed at a range of decision-making levels, HFP have used it to effect at both national and community level. 1 These games can be found here: 12

14 Fig 4: In the early warning > early action game, participants take turns to play the role of a decision-maker having to select an early action based on a received early warning. Source: Pet Lab & Red Cross / Red Crescent Climate Center. In 2012, the Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) commissioned three pilot national workshops for climate services in West Africa. The aim of these three experiences was to attempt to build the GFCS user interface platform (UIP) where such platforms are most critically needed: at the national level. Thus, the three Meteorological Offices of Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali were supported to carry out their own stakeholder mapping at the national level and reach out to key stakeholders across all climate-sensitive sectors in the country (health, agriculture & food security, disaster management, water, infrastructure, transport and energy), potential users of their climate and weather products. A National Workshop on Climate Services in each pilot country followed to launch the dialogue between national providers and users of climate services, and discuss the appropriate institutional mechanisms for establishing a perennial National Framework for Climate Services. The national workshops of Burkina, Niger and Mali brought together national Met service staff and climate researchers with over fifty representatives from climate-sensitive sectors in each country, as well as vulnerable community spokespersons and representatives from boundary organizations (communicators, rural radios, farmer platforms, community-based organizations, and so forth), adept community relays of climate and weather advisories and alerts. What came of these interactions were clear user-devised roadmaps to build National Frameworks for Climate Services, and establish an national chain of services that would link available climate science and early warning information with technical services of all climatesensitive sectors, and then in turn with farmers, herders and the most vulnerable communities, with built-in channels for feedback and end-user input into climate service development. It is the hope that these National frame-works, rooted in appropriate institutional setups at the national level and resting on multidisciplinary collaboration and cross-ministerial partnerships for the production and communication of salient climate services in the country, will at last overcome the obstacles to climate information access and use by the most vulnerable communities in West Africa, and beyond. The GFCS ambitions to replicable the West Africa pilots in a number of demanding countries in years to come. 13

15 All the above experiences underscore the necessity of face-to-face dialogue, in order to bridge the gap between forecasters and other sector specific staff, whom in many countries still do not work together towards achieving their often-similar missions of building national/local resilience to predictable climate-related risks. However the bridging the gap process will not happen in a vacuum; it needs to be mediated, and pro-actively inserted into emerging efforts to develop climate services for end users. Another tool used to translate climate science into a useful format that can be used to inform decision-making is the production of Crop Calendars. This is a participatory process that involves climate and agricultural experts working together alongside vulnerable communities and farmers. The crop calendars are created by using and translating climate and agricultural science such as rainfall and temperature forecasts to plan appropriate measures and activities, such as when to plant crops and what types of seeds to use. The process trains farmers and intermediaries to understand how to interpret, and operationalise climate information / advice. Experts simply start by explaining what various forecasts mean and the uncertain nature of the information. During this stage, intermediaries and farmers are able to ask questions and start a dialogue. Following this explanation, participants explore, together, possible actions that can be taken based on the predictions that they have received. These actions are then plotted on a crop calendar that includes information on when to sow crops, what kind of crops and seeds are best, when to harvest, when possible dry spells are to dry crops for storage etc. Often the most important information for farmers being the date to plant, to ensure that they do not waste seeds and they know which types of seeds to buy. This information is most useful when combined with sub-seasonal information allowing farmers to make relevant agricultural decisions over the course of the season, as well as the crucial seed selection at the start of the season. The above examples are games that can be adapted and played according to the context of the different programmes. This flexibility has been identified as a key component to the success of participatory tools. Furthermore the two-way exchange that is being facilitated during these dialogues is essential in effective communication. A list and description of some of these games can be found in Appendix 4. Climate Field Schools - Although this paper has identified the participatory exchange approach as the most effective means of training intermediaries, another approach worth briefly discussing is the use of Climate Field Schools (CFS). The aim of CFS is to improve farmer s knowledge and understanding of seasonal forecasts and extreme climate events, helping them to apply this information to support their farming activities. Intermediaries have been identified as the most effective way of achieving this. As such the first stage of this approach is to train the intermediaries (field officers and extension workers). 14

16 As with the exchange approach, training is provided through the medium of games and simulations, intended to train participants through engagement in experiences. It is a continuous process that ensures intermediaries are constantly learning through their actions and experiences. Intermediaries are trained in the concepts of probability and how to understand the terminology and the implications of the forecasts on farming practices. Following their initial training intermediaries are then charged with developing and testing CFS modules to train farmers. Although evaluations have claimed that the CFS approach has been effective in increasing climate knowledge and understanding it is not without its critics. One respondent stated that they had abandoned the use of CFS in their projects in Indonesia, because farmers do not like the particular dynamic of being taught in a classroom environment in, often, traditional lecture style seminars. Furthermore, there was much criticism regarding the poor level of training that intermediaries received, resulting in participants losing confidence in the intermediaries / extension workers. The key challenge that was noted in this particular case study was how to more effectively train intermediaries and facilitators. It was felt that little progress could be made until the training gap was addressed. Since abandoning CFS, Science Field Shops (SFS) have been developed which more closely align with the aforementioned exchange approach. Currently SFS do not train or use intermediaries and instead there is a direct exchange between farmers and scholars. However, the potential to train intermediaries in the SFS has been noted. It has been suggested that intermediaries could attend and receive training at the SFS and then return to the CFS as highly trained extension workers (Stigter, and Winarto, 2013 and Boer et al. 2010). Information communication channels: Once intermediaries have been identified and trained continued dissemination, access to and operationalisation of climate information and services needs to be ensured. One critical first distinction to make in this endeavour is between information dissemination and communication. Indeed, the aim has to be on establishing a process of using intermediaries to facilitate 2-way information communication, and not simply dissemination (see box below). Figure 5 illustrates the most commonly identified channels of information communication identified. 15

17 Figure 5. Information communication channels. Respondents suggested that although exchange workshops are effective they can be limited in reach. As such, additional less resource intense options such as radio broadcasts and SMS should accompany the workshops. However, the purpose of this paper is not to discuss the different delivery models that can be used for communicating climate information. Instead Figure 4 aims to simply illustrate the different communication tools that intermediaries must be familiar with. For more information on communication channels refer to CGIAR s working paper number 41 (Jost, 2013). Figure 6. Participatory exchange; collecting information to feedback into the process. 16

18 Participatory feedback: Figure 6 illustrates a feedback process aimed at encouraging continued collaboration, communication and learning. An understanding of the type of climate science that has been operationalised, how it has been applied and how this information has been blended with local knowledge and practices is important. This enables the vulnerable communities, farmers and climate scientist to continue to learn from each other. It also acts as continued training for intermediaries, illustrating how climate information has been received and applied so that they can continue to refine their role. The same dialogue exchange and participatory games illustrated in Figure 3 can be used to facilitate this learning process. It should be noted that continuous monitoring should be encouraged throughout the entire approach to ensure that projects are being implemented as efficiently and effectively as possible. 17

19 Box 2: From Information Dissemination to Communication From Dissemination to 2-way Communication: Communicating to Reach the Last Mile Following the development, tailoring and packaging of climate information and services it is vital to ensure that the final product is efficiently and effectively communicated. This requires not only that the product is disseminated widely, but that it reaches everyone who needs it. This means that it should equally serve women, lower caste and other marginalised groups. By conducting a pre-assessment of salient delivery channels at the outset of a project it is possible for farmers to request and therefore receive tailored climate support services through the specific communication channels that are effective to reach them. Through a review of good practice a number of examples of effective salient channels - able to reach the most vulnerable - have been identified. These channels include rural radio, SMS, voice recording, agromet bulletin boards posted across strategic locations, etc. all presented in a format suitable to their needs. For example, radio alerts at a time when they are not in the field, SMS in local, regional languages, voice recording at timing appropriate to inform farm operations, etc. Through CCAFS review of good practice experiences, the following two mechanisms have emerged as important channels through which to ensure farmers are accessed at scale: Leveraging the power of ICTs to reach the most vulnerable through SMS, rural radio and voice messages, and to build ICT-enabled platforms for two-way communication between farmers and experts Building partnerships with professional communicators, boundary organizations (NGOs, CBOs, etc.), media and community relays to serve as the missing link between communities at risk and forecasters. One such example is the Grameen project in Uganda. This project reached farmers on program-provided cell phones to community knowledge workers who enable farmers to query agricultural experts and forecasters at the Uganda national met service. It displays a potent way forward in building two-way communication platforms that capture farmer feedback on received information, for permanent integration of farmer inputs into the production process. Examples surveyed by Jost et al. also confirm that dissemination platforms with provisions for farmer feedback on received information are the most effective platforms for climate information communication (Jost 2013). 18

20 6. Summary of Challenges Identified This section discusses challenges that persist when attempting to train intermediaries to serve as communicators of climate forecasts, advisories and early warning messages to at risk communities. During the research a number of challenges to the successful communication of climate information and advisory services were identified. The most frequently cited of these are illustrated in Table 1 along with proposed solutions. Table 1. Challenge Issue Solution Trust Stability Communicating uncertainty Two-way communication It is vital that intermediaries gain the trust of both the scientist and the farmers that they aim to work with. However, many respondents felt that his was often very difficult, as a lot of time is required to sufficiently earn trust. As with trust stability is important in building confidence and to maintaining a high level of training. However, respondents noted that in many cases, once intermediaries were trained they would leave (often to the cities) to find work or they would be poached by a different organisation. In order to build confidence and continued collaboration it is essential that uncertainty and probability are successfully communicated and understood. If uncertainty is not communicated efficiently then farmer may make ill-informed decisions, leading to maladaptation leading to lose confidence in forecasts. Frequently cited as one of the main challenges. However, is it essential in ensuring the correct type and format of information is produced and communicated - Identification of the right intermediary, - High level of training to build confidence, - Time to build up trust and confidence through experience and evidence, - Continuity involvement of the intermediary from the start of the project, - Building trust by linking scientific, climate information with indigenous knowledge and concepts that are familiar to smallholder farmers, - Community selection of the intermediary, - Respect intermediaries hold a position of respect (context specific), - Extending measurements to local groups (eg rain gauges), - Communication of probability so that farmers are able to understand uncertainties and not lose faith in forecasts, - Participatory downscaling to decrease scepticism. - Selection of intermediaries who are already establishes and highly respected within the community, - Selection of older community leaders, ex-extension workers, farmer s leaders, people who are less likely to move to the cities, - Incentives for intermediaries to stay? - (requires funding). - Intermediaries can be effectively trained to communicate uncertainty trough the use of tools such as the aforementioned participatory games, - Climate information should be provided in probabilistic, not deterministic terms, -Lobbying meteorologist to communicate uncertainty, - Packaging and communicating information should be in a format that makes sense to farmers in the context of their day-to-day lives, - Facilitators (ie intermediaries) are made available to help farmers use the forecast info, - Blending of scientific information with local experiences to understand probability. -Training intermediaries to be able to facilitate exchanges and when appropriate participatory games helps to encourage dialogue and thus a two-way exchange, 19

21 Equity Up-scaling Funding Access to and dissemination of information Forgetting training Power relations to facilitate blending of local and scientific knowledge. one example that highlights the importance of such blending is in a community where the surrounding topography created a unique microclimate that only became evident through a participatory exchange of information between locals and scientists. - Servicing women, lower caste and other under served sub-groups within the community with salient climate services can prove extremely challenging, How to reach everyone and ensure equal access to climate information and advice is thus an important consideration, - How to ensure everyone s information needs are met - How to scale up beyond initial pilot studies, - How to ensure long-term sustainable, - Everything is piloted to a great expense but when they try and upscale there is no money/ resources. Limited funding can effect options for upscaling programmes. As it may cause limitations in training and resources for intermediaries. - Climate scientists are scarce. The ratio of climate and agricultural experts to communities and farmers are very high. This limits the amount of face-to-face contact between scientists and farmers, - Poor Infrastructure also presents challenges. Many intermediaries are reported to simply forget their training. Participatory approaches can miss social dynamics of power. - Two-way SMS, - Radio panel discussions where farmers can call in with questions for climate and agri experts, - Climate / extension centres where intermediaries are available to assist and advise farmers. - Participatory downscaling process should be extended down to a community level to be able to actively identify and target marginalised groups, - The use of carefully selected intermediaries trained in different communication methods, - The purposeful inclusion of marginalised groups, - Separate exchanges for men and women, - The use of a divers range of communication channels, - The use of PVCA (Participatory vulnerability and capacity assessments) tools to ensure equity - Funding for resources and training, - High level of training of intermediaries, - Make sure enough intermediaries are trained to cover all communities in the target area. - One suggestion was the use if the UN adaptation fund to help open climate centres, which can not only carry out measurements, but also act as advisory centres with fully trained intermediaries that work with locals and climate scientist to apply climate information. Such centres can also provide information on market prices and seed types, as well as space where simple exchanges can take places. - Trained intermediaries can actively visit communities and engage with farmers directly, - There are not enough climate scientist in general to facilitate face-to- face communication, therefore, there is a need for less labour intensive techniques and the use of a range of different communication channels and ICTs eg phones, radio, announcements at mosques / churches, - Encourage people to spread the information, by word of mouth, for example to their neighbours or friends in the market, peer-to-peer. - Participatory training and experiential learning. Relating information to experiences and existing knowledge makes it easier to understand and remember information, - Frequent application of lessons learnt, - Continued training. - Ensuring communities are involved in selecting intermediaries, - Training of more than one intermediary. 20

22 8. What next? What more is needed to effectively leverage intermediaries to communicate climate services at scale to vulnerable communities? This was a difficult question for respondents to answer. Many felt that they were yet to carry out sufficient evaluations of their projects, which would be required before they could think about trying to up-scale. Furthermore, suggestions that were made related to the upscaling of projects to communicate climate information and not specifically to train intermediaries. Nevertheless, examples of suggestions made include: 1. Evaluation of existing pilot studies; 2. Money from the UN adaptation fund could be used to re-instate extension services and re-train intermediaries / extension workers to work in new climate / resource centres and run client prioritised services in their catchment area. These proposed climate centres would not just be measuring points, but would act as resources with extension personnel available to provide information and advice. These centres could also provide market information, create links between farmers and run participatory exchange workshops; 3. Next steps could be to increase the capacity of communities so that they are able to react to the information and advice that they receive from the intermediaries; 4. Privatisation - Kenya is promoting community lead privatisation where someone would charge for a consultant s time and advice (fees for service). This would prevent intermediaries / advisors leaving once they are trained as they could receive money for their services. BUT this approach does not promote equity and would exclude the poor. Larger private climate science advisories are also being established, but this brings up issues of agenda. 5. Encouraging and strengthening of collaborations between extension workers, as each has their own area of expertise. 21