5-year Strategy for the Transformation of Soil Health and Fertility in Ethiopia

Transcription

1 5-year Strategy for the Transformation of Soil Health and Fertility in Ethiopia Vision, Systemic Bottlenecks, Interventions, and Implementation Framework Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia MOA July, 2013

2 Table of Contents Executive Summary... i Acknowledgements... vii Acronyms... viii 1. Introduction Purpose and scope of this document Background Major stakeholders of the soil system Methodology Developing a vision Identifying soil-level and systemic bottlenecks Designing interventions to address bottlenecks Overall vision for the soil system and bottlenecks identified within it Overview Soil-level bottlenecks Prioritization of Soil-level bottlenecks Systemic bottlenecks Interventions for soil-level bottlenecks Overview Geographical categorization Intervention package approach Summary of interventions Implementation framework Sequence of interventions in the implementation area Sequence of activities for proposed interventions Monitoring, Learning, and Evaluation Results framework References... 94

3 Executive Summary Despite the ongoing interventions to improve soil fertility, Ethiopia s soil system has not yet reached its full health and fertility potential for sustainable and substantial increases in agricultural production Over the last decade, the Ethiopian soil system has improved through the relentless effort put forth by different stakeholders who are engaged in improving the system 1 and agricultural productivity at large. Most notably, the Ministry of Agriculture has initiated multiple interventions at the national level, including acid soil amendment, the promotion and scale-up of organic and inorganic fertilizer use, a series of improvements to manage vertisols, soil and water conservation, and an agroforestry scale-up under a five-year soil fertility research and management roadmap launched in In addition, recently, the MoA, together with RBoAs, RARIs and international development partners, has embarked upon the initiative of introducing, testing, and identifying additional fertilizers that the country s agricultural soils need. However, the undertaking has not yet been translated into full implementation and scale-up. Further, currently, the MoA, in collaboration with the ATA and other federal and regional stakeholders, is pursuing the development of robust landscape-based resource mapping, the establishment of a national, digital mapping database infrastructure capacity, and a soil fertility resources map of the country. In a similar fashion, other stakeholders in the sector, such as EIAR, RARIs, RBoAs, and higher learning institutions have also invested efforts in different areas, including fertilizer trials, watershed management, and organic matter input application, etc. However, despite these activities, high level assessments and soil fertility diagnoses being made by different institutions and organizations indicate that the majority of Ethiopian soils are still facing significant systemic as well as productivity related bottlenecks towards achieving balanced soil health and fertility, which inhibits the fulfillment of increased agricultural productivity. The major bottlenecks constraining Ethiopia s soil fertility and health, and the enabling environment which requires improvement, have necessitated the need to come up with a holistic approach to address the issues systematically in order to strengthen the soil fertility and health system. A well-functioning Ethiopian soil system is envisioned to help Ethiopia transform its agriculture sector Overall Vision for Ethiopia s Soil System: A balanced soil health and fertility system that helps farmers possess and maintain sustained high-quality and fertile soils through the implementation of appropriate soil-management techniques, the provision of required inputs, and the facilitation of the appropriate enablers, including knowledge and finance. Realizing the vision, however, requires addressing both soil-level and systemic bottlenecks through targeted interventions Consultations with stakeholders in the Ethiopian soil system and a review of international best practices have enabled the following vision to be developed: there are two categories of bottlenecks that inhibit the realization of the vision: 1 Soil system refers to the overall soil level and institutional level interaction including actors within and outside the agricultural lands i

4 (a) Soil-level physical, chemical, and biological issues within the country s soils in different agroecologies; and (b) Systemic constraints within the enabling environment and institutional set-up, including capability, organization, and management systems Based on in-depth analyses and expert assessment, twelve key soil-level bottlenecks have been identified in various parts of the country: Organic matter depletion Soil fauna and flora depletion Nutrient depletion Biomass coverage removal Soil erosion 2 Salinity and sodicity Acidity Waterlogging Low moisture availability Physical land degradation 3 Soil structural deterioration Soil pollution These bottlenecks are mostly cross-linked with the intervention needed to address them. This means that different interventions can be applied to solve a single bottleneck, and that one intervention has impact toward solving multiple bottlenecks. This cross-linked relationship helps to stress the importance of understanding soils as a system, highlighting the fact that the physical, chemical, and biological conditions of soil health, along with soil fertility, are closely connected with each other s. Ten interventions to address the soil-level bottlenecks have also been identified, based upon their importance and potential impact: 1) Organic input 2) Inorganic fertilizer 3) Bio-fertilizer (Inoculants) 4) Conservation agriculture 5) Soil and water conservation practices 6) Saline/sodic soils management practices 7) Drainage of waterlogged soils 8) Soil amendment application 9) Polluted soils treatment 10) Other soil health enrichment practices These interventions are grouped under one soil fertility and health management framework (See Exhibit 16). The framework helps to encompass and properly underscore the need to focus on soil fertility and health tailored interventions that can address soil fertility constraints. Under this framework, identified interventions would be implemented using an Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) approach. 2 Soil erosion in this context referees to top soil loss or top soil erosion due to water and wind 3 Physical land degradation refers to severely degraded topography and mass land movement which is recommended to be completely withdrawn from agricultural activity ii

5 In cross-linked soil-level bottlenecks and interventions, in which a single intervention addresses multiple soil-level bottlenecks, the above proposed interventions can be grouped alongside their corresponding systemic bottlenecks. Each intervention addresses different soil-level bottlenecks with different magnitudes of direct impact. Those represented by indicate that the intervention directly impacts the corresponding bottleneck (as can be seen in exhibit 16) at varying degrees, whereas interventions and bottlenecks with the sign indicate that the corresponding intervention has indirect influence over the corresponding bottleneck. Soil-level interventions Soil fertility Soil-level Bottlenecks Organic input Inorganic fertilizer Bio-fertilizer (inoculants) Conservation agriculture Soil/water conservation practices Saline/sodic soils management Drainage for waterlogged soils Soil amendment Polluted soils treatment Other soil health enrichment practices Organic matter depletion Soil fauna depletion Soil erosion Nutrient depletion Acidity Physical land degradation Biomass coverage removal Soil pollution Low moisture availability Waterlogging iii

6 Salinity/ alkalinity 4 / sodicity Soil structural deterioration Integrated Soil Fertility Management Approach These interventions are not all new to the system. Rather, some of them have been recently implemented and some of them are up and running but could benefit from scaling-up, while others need awareness at a national level and still others need to be strengthened to be implemented in other areas for a holistic soil fertility and health management system approach. As mentioned, the bottlenecks not only exist at the soil-level, but also in the surrounding system. Five major systemic bottlenecks which hinder the achievement of the vision have also been identified: Soil information management Technology generation, dissemination, and linkage Input value chain Organization and management systems Strategic and regulatory framework Unlike the cross-linked soil-level bottlenecks and interventions, the systemic bottlenecks and interventions primarily reflect a direct relationship, in which a single intervention addresses a single bottleneck. Therefore, these proposed interventions can be grouped alongside their corresponding systemic bottlenecks: Key Systemic Areas Systemic Bottlenecks Interventions Soil information management Lack of up-to-date information on soil resource data and exchange No soil information database Building regular mechanism of soil resource data generation Establish soil database, management, and exchange system Technology generation, dissemination, and linkage Lack of soil test-based fertilizer recommendation Lack of soil fertility and health technology registry and release mechanism Low emphasis on soil fertility focused extension system Strengthen the formulation and dissemination of soil test-based fertilizer recommendations Establishment of soil fertility and health technology registry and release system Strengthening the soil focus of the extension system Increased research initiatives and resource 4 Alkalinity refers to a mild form of salinity that emerges due to improper water use and continuous use of wood ash over agricultural land for an extended period by farmers iv

7 Input value chain Organization and management systems Strategic/regulatory framework Limited research emphasis on soil health and fertility Limited lab capabilities and capacity Inadequate use of and inappropriate research and management for irrigation related to soils Limited coordination between research, extension, and academia Limited accessibility/affordability to inputs (e.g., fertilizer, soil amendment, equipment) Inefficiency in distribution and marketing of fertilizers Other inefficiencies in the value chain Limited financial support to farmer adoption of practices Absence of a national entity to coordinate soil related data and activities Lack of coordination among soil research institutions Limited coordination among soil laboratories Limited quality control mechanism and regulatory system for inputs Lack of proper agricultural land use planning strategy and enforcement Lack of capacity and mechanism for soil pollution control enforcement allocation on soil health and fertility Enhancing capacity for assessment/ interpretation of soil data through improvement of lab infrastructure, human capability, and management systems Develop and strengthen proper irrigation research and management system related to soils Development of enhanced connection mechanism between research, extension, and academia Improving competency of the fertilizer value chain Establishment of domestic blended fertilizer production capacity Establishment of amendment (e.g., lime, gypsum) production facilities near areas of need Establishment and expansion of bio-fertilizer production facilities Adoption of policy/regulation enabling more player participation in fertilizer distribution Expansion of existing financial support (e.g., micro financing) to smallholder farmers Establishment of national soil resource institute Revision of nationwide soil system Revision of nationwide laboratory management structure Establishment of input quality control mechanism Development/enforcement of regional strategy for agricultural land use planning Develop/build capacity for soil pollution control and regulatory enforcement To be effective, interventions will need to be well coordinated with a structured framework and oversight mechanism The selection and the implementation of the soil-level interventions will vary by different parts of the country, as the agroecological characteristics, soil attributes, and other farming conditions are not universal across the nation. Therefore, the Sector Strategy should be tailored to respective areas of different agroecological zoning, to consider the varying needs of soil health and fertility for the residing systems. Thus, an approach that combines all available and locally-relevant technologies and practices in a way that increases the agronomic efficiency of individual interventions is necessary. In other words, developing a package of interventions that suits the specific conditions of the categorized zones will be the core of the implementation of this Sector Strategy. v

8 The implementation of the holistic set of interventions outlined above will require a concerted effort on the part of many partners. For these interventions to be impactful across the entire agriculture system they must be coordinated and sequenced in order to fully utilize all partners strengths and expertise and reduce overlaps/duplication while addressing gaps. In order to achieve this, this document has outlined a systematic implementation framework that builds on and strengthens existing government structures to guide the process. The interventions outlined in this document have been grouped into eight broad implementation areas: 3 in soil-level interventions and 5 in systemic interventions. The 3 soil-level intervention areas are: Soil management zonation; Technology package preparation; and Extension. The 5 systemic intervention areas are: Soil information management; Technology generation, dissemination, and linkage; Input value chain; Strategic and regulatory framework; and Organization and management system, which is identical to the structuring groups of the systemic interventions. Implementation of each of the intervention areas and their respective activities should be undertaken by concerned institutions at both the federal and especially regional levels. Furthermore, each area should have an institutional owner that is responsible for driving the implementation and monitoring the progress. At the national level, the implementation of the Strategy should be guided by a National Soil Strategy Steering Committee. Its members could consist of senior policy makers from the MoA, RBoAs, and other key stakeholders from the soil sector. The Committee would provide high-level guidance to ensure that implementation is on track toward achieving the vision: oversee resource allocation, review progress, and provide feedback. It would also serve as a body aimed at overcoming emerging challenges and refining the Strategy so that it remains relevant as the industry continues to evolve. The interventions required to realize Ethiopia s vision of increasing production and productivity under the GTP call for a well-functioning soil system and a sequenced implementation framework The Growth and Transformation Plan strongly supports the intensified production of marketable products for domestic and export markets by small holder farmers and private agricultural investors. Fundamentals of the strategy include a shift to production of high value crops with a special focus on high production potential areas and intensified commercialization and support for the development of large-scale commercial agriculture, where feasible. During the GTP period, the agricultural sector will serve as a spring board for structural transformation in the long run by adequately supplying inputs necessary for industrial growth in a systematic manner. It should be noted that, achieving the vision of the Soil Sector Strategy and ultimately the GTP will not occur immediately and a careful sequencing of steps and activities will be critical to ensure that existing institutions are strengthened and role clarity among all partners is improved. At the same time, the enabling environment and regulatory framework must be enhanced to encourage new, productive and efficient public and private sector partners to enter into the system. In addition, given soil s role as the basic agricultural element which is needed to support the achievement of the targets in the country s Growth and Transformation Plan, the implementation of the Sector Strategy will require a sense of urgency, including the identification of issues that can be addressed quickly in order to build momentum towards the transformation envisioned by this Strategy. vi

9 Acknowledgements It is with the support and contribution of a range of partners that this vision and strategy document was developed for the Ethiopian Soil System. The ATA would like to expresses it sincere appreciation for the data, insight, and guidance of its partner organization and individuals from public, private and, NGO sectors at the federal, regional, and international levels. The ATA is highly appreciative of their time and looks forward to continued collaboration towards the transformation of the soil system and the agriculture system as a whole. vii

10 Acronyms AGP AISE AISCO ATA BMGF RBoA CRGE CSA DA DAP EAP EARC EIA EIAR EPA ETB EthioSIS FAO FTC GTP GIZ GTZ HLI ICRAF IFPRI ISFM LDSF MOA MoFED MLE NEPAD NGO PASDEP PPP RARI RSTL SNNP UNDP UNEP USAID USG Agricultural Growth Program Agricultural Inputs Supply Enterprise Agricultural Input Supply Cooperation Agricultural Transformation Agency Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Regional Bureau of Agriculture Climate-Resilience Green Economy Central Statistical Agency Development Agent Diammonium Phosphate Ethiopian Agricultural Portal Ethiopian Agricultural Research Council Environmental Impact Assessment Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research Environmental Protection Agency Ethiopian Birr Ethiopian Soil Information System Food and Agricultural Organization Farmer Training Center Growth and Transformation Plan The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit Higher Learning Institution World Agroforestry Centre (AKA International Centre for Research in Agroforestry) International Food Policy Research Institute Integrated Soil Fertility Management Land Degradation Surveillance Framework Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Finance and Economic Development Monitoring, Learning, and Evaluation The New Partnership for Africa's Development Non-Governmental Organization Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty Public/Private Partnership Regional Agricultural Research Institute Regional Soil Testing Laboratory Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People s Region United Nations Development Program United Nations Environment Program United States Agency for International Development Urea Super Granule viii

11 1. Introduction 1.1 Purpose and scope of this document This document seeks to outline Ethiopia s national strategy to transform the soil system within the country. To achieve this task, the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and the Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) have worked closely with key local and international stakeholders to analyze bottlenecks and identify interventions to strengthen the agriculture sector in general and the soil system in particular. These interventions, which are either currently being implemented on a small scale, or which are new recommendations, are intended to guide the various domestic and international stakeholders participating in soil related activities by targeting their efforts towards resolving both soil-level and systemic bottlenecks. In all cases, the objective is to bring about holistic transformation in order to achieve improved soil health and fertility in Ethiopia. This strategy will be implemented under a 5-year timeframe, from 2013 through to 2017, and will be revised and updated as the system evolves in the coming years. The MoA, with the support of the ATA, will implement the proposed interventions in the coming five-year time, to strengthen the Ethiopian soil system and improve agricultural productivity. This document presents analyses of bottlenecks within the system in two categories: (a) Soil-level physical, chemical, and biological issues within the country s soils; and (b) Systemic constraints within the surrounding sector environment and institutional set-up, including capability, organization, and management systems Interventions prioritized within this strategy will address both sets of bottlenecks, in order to achieve the nation s vision for soil health and fertility. These interventions will encompass essential components, from the development of knowledge and capacity to the supply of necessary inputs, adoption of appropriate practices, and establishment of implementation systems. This strategy also recognizes that various stakeholders in the sector have developed strategies and are implementing interventions. Some of these interventions are in a research or pilot stage while others are in a scale-up stage; regardless, there is importance in aggregating these interventions into a national framework, with establishment of clear roles and responsibilities, for improved coordination and followup. 1.2 Background Given the agricultural target within Ethiopia s 5-year Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) to double yields between 2010 and 2015, remedying the health and fertility of Ethiopian soils is a priority. Despite the limited efforts being implemented in the areas of nutrient depletion, organic matter management, and soil and water conservation efforts by different actors in the sector (notably the MoA, agricultural research and higher institutes across the nation) multiple studies conducted throughout the nation indicate a significant decline in soil health and the depletion of soil fertility. Some of the most severe issues include: Topsoil erosion (which is among the most severe globally) has depleted Ethiopian soils of vital organic matter and essential nutrients; this has destroyed the balance within the system. 1

12 Soil macro- and micronutrient mining and organic matter depletion has resulted from an extensive farming system with less nutrient replenishment, crop residue removal, inefficiency of soil nutrient input, excessive tillage, overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion. Although, the blanket recommendations of DAP and Urea has played an important role in the development of the fertilizer sector and has also increased the awareness of farmers in understanding benefits of fertilizer, however blanket fertilizer application approach has, at times, worsened the nutrient retention situation. DAP and Urea is the only fertilizer formula being applied in a major way throughout the nation. This represents a critical issue, given the country s wide variety of agroecologies and soil types (Box 1), as well as the multiple types of crops that are cultivated. Therefore, unless dealt with via immediate interventions under a structured national strategy, the current blanket application of fertilizer may significantly hinder the impact of the various interventions being implemented across different systems and value chains. In order to identify soil constraints at a granular level but on a national scale efforts are already underway by the MoA, with the support of the ATA and other development partners. Soil acidity (the formation of an acid soil due to excessive leaching of cations and a concentration of non-soluble and toxic ions [Box 1] Key characteristics of major soil types in Ethiopia Nitisols (~14.4% of total land mass: 16.1 mn Ha) are mainly found in the high rainfall areas. Have very deep, well-weathered profile with shiny deep red color, and is clay dominated and rich in iron Cambisols (~12% of total land mass: 13.4 mn Ha) occur in all climates with mountainous terrains. Are young soils with slight or moderate weathering of parent material; are used intensively as agricultural land in Ethiopia Vertisols (~11.9% of total land mass: 13.3 mn Ha) are well known for high clay content with deep and wide cracks when dry, while swelling when wet. Previous studies indicate surface organic matter of 3-10%, which is higher compared to other soil types Luvisols (~6% of total land mass: 6.7 mn Ha) have highactivity clay washed down from the surface to sub soil. Have moderate stage of weathering with high base saturation Fluvisols (~6.2% of total land mass: 6.7 mn Ha) exhibit stratification with irregular pattern associated with sedimentation. Are common in flooded areas under all climatic zones Xerosols (~5.4% of total land mass: 6 mn Ha) are humuspoor, semi-desert soils. Are associated with aeolian with light color and high base saturation Acrisols (~1.8% of total land mass: 2 mn Ha) are wellweathered soils with low-activity clays with red to yellow color and less base saturation or acidic ph Solonchaks (~0.2% of total land mass: 0.2 mn Ha) are soils with salts of various compositions, low organic carbon with high ph occurring in lowland and semi-arid regions Others (~42.1% of total land mass) consist of roughly 13 other soil types. Source: Hurni, H (2007), Landscape Transformation and Sustainable Development in Ethiopia: Background Information for a study tour though Ethiopia, Center for Development and Environment, University of Bern in the soil) is also an issue when it comes to the soils of Ethiopia in which close to 40% of the total land is affected. Even though there are efforts underway to mitigate the problem through the use of lime, they need to be further strengthened to address the problem. Other systemic issues which hinder soil fertility improvement efforts and agricultural productivity at large include: input value chain inefficiencies, organizational issues resulting in poor coordination and linkage, and capacity related problems.. In addition, addressing soil issues in today s world requires additional consideration, given concerns around environmental destruction and sustainability. During the Green Revolutions in several Asian and Latin American countries, soil fertility issues were primarily addressed through the input of depleted nutrients via the application of inorganic fertilizers. However, contemporary understanding appreciates 2

13 that the sole application of inorganic fertilizers could cause serious environmental losses, and that more sustainable means of restoring soil fertility are necessary. Ethiopia s approach to addressing soil health and fertility must thus keep the concept of Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) in mind. 1.3 Major stakeholders of the soil system Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) The Ministry of Agriculture, the highest body in the agricultural system, is responsible for creating strategies, regulating policies, and supporting all sector actors to create a modern and a highly productive agricultural system; one that uses a advanced technologies to increase production the and reduce poverty. As the central stakeholder, the MoA will be responsible for regulatory and policy associated with this strategy, and the coordination of participation by other major stakeholders in various areas. The MoA is also responsible for developing and refining the overall national agriculture and rural development strategies and policies for the country, with input and support from the regions and other stakeholders. 5 The MoA will be the organization responsible for major decision making related to various areas of the sector strategy, along with the provision of policy and regulatory support. Regional Bureaus of Agriculture (RBoAs) The Regional Bureaus of Agriculture, in their respective regions, will have similar roles to the MoA at the regional level, with additional focus on the implementation of crosscutting efforts. More specifically, the regions and their RBoAs are responsible for agricultural development policy implementations, coordination, and evaluation of strategy execution. Each RBoA has a Bureau Head and a number of technical and administrative staff, including various Department Heads. These personnel provide technical and administrative support, as well as supervision and monitoring for the woreda and kebele level extension offices. Each region s agricultural advisory support is divided according to major agroecological zones, providing more detailed technical and administrative support, especially for the larger regions. 6 The RBoAs structure extends all the way down to the DA level. Research Institutions The Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) and the Regional Agricultural Research Institutes (RARIs) have the mandate to generate, develop, and adapt agricultural technologies that focus on the overall development and needs of smallholder farmers. These institutes will play a key role in the development of solutions and technologies to improve inputs (such as seed and fertilizer) and practices on agricultural land. EIAR is responsible for the coordination of nationwide research trials that test such solutions, and the RARIs are expected to conduct further research within various geographies to identify region-tailored recommendations. 5 Agricultural extension and advisory services worldwide, IFPRI ( 6 Agricultural extension and advisory services worldwide, IFPRI ( 3

14 Soil Testing Laboratories The National Soil Testing Center (NSTC) and the various regional soil testing laboratories (RSTLs) were established to play a vital role in the generation of insights and recommendations by analyzing the details of Ethiopia s soils. The NSTC and RSTLs provide analytical services on soil parameters, as stipulated in the research proposal and protocol. They also provide fertilizer advisory services to farmers. Currently, the NSTC and some RSTLs are preliminarily focusing on the Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthioSIS) that is detailed later in this document, and are also coordinating the conducting of analysis across the regional lab network. Regional soil laboratories should provide services for other types of research activities and trials, the results of which should be compiled within a unified database that all laboratories may contribute to and take from. Higher Learning Institutions (HLIs) Various higher learning institutions in Ethiopia support the sector in various aspects, with a primary focus on the training and cultivation of talent to work with the soil system, and conducting analysis and research. As part of this strategy, HLIs would be supported to continue providing analytical services and research/technology generation activities, especially in areas where HLIs are better capacitated (in terms of human or other resources), while also encouraged to continue and enhance operations in terms of supplying the sector with the talent it requires. Development Partners International and local development partners contribute to the system in various ways. Certain donor organizations provide funding for various activities, while other organizations directly implement development projects related to soil health and fertility. In addition, several organizations support local capacity building through training and/or provision of relevant technologies and experts. Close coordination with various development partners is necessary as part of this strategy, both from planning and implementation perspectives, in order to maximize potential impact though full utilization of partner commitments. 4

15 Private Sector The soil sector within Ethiopia has multiple ties with several types of private sector organizations and industries, primarily in areas such as soil inputs (i.e., fertilizers). Although there is a limited presence of private sector players in the industry, there is potential for the soil sector to benefit from involvement of the private sector in various forms (e.g., public/private partnerships (PPP)). Soil-related PPP models might potentially focus on areas with unmet demand from public infrastructure or services and areas that have limited efficiency of provision. Box 2 highlights some of the potential areas of PPP development. In addition to the PPP model, more active private sector involvement in inorganic fertilizer supply and distribution may also greatly benefit the soil health and fertility situation in Ethiopia. It is noteworthy to point out that each PPP modality is open to different kinds of arrangements depending on the needs and benefits of each party. Other Relevant Ministries Given the cascading effect that the condition of a country s soil has on other considerations, effective coordination between the Ministry of Agriculture and other Ministries is crucial. Relevant Ministries include the Ministry of Water and Energy, the Ministry of Industry, the Ministry of Mining, and the Ministry of Defense, all of which are involved in the establishment of domestic fertilizer [Box 2] Potential private sector partners in various areas: fertilizer blending and lime production and distribution 1. Fertilizer blending plant Context International private sector partners have significant expertise in establishing and operating highly successful and efficient fertilizer blending facilities Financial resources from private sector could enable a rapid scaleup/sale-out of fertilizer blending facilities across the country Potential PPP models Turnkey solution o Private partner builds the plant, operates the process in the early stage, and transfers the expertise to the domestic owner o Different arrangements can be incorporated, such as capacity building trainings o The private party works on contractual fee bases for a specific period of time Management contract o Private partner responsible for operation and maintenance of already built plants, given the lack of operation experience of domestic owner, which includes management capacity building o The private party works on a contractual fee basis for a specific period of time The fact that bulk blending is usually an industrial engagement with less complexity in technological expertise is likely to limit partnership potential 2. Soil amendments - Lime Context The existing crushers demonstrate poor infrastructural quality and operational management, and they have competing raw material use with other industries, both of which have resulted in production inefficiency and unmet market demand The fact that there is significant demand in the nation provides attractive opportunities for the private sector to engage in the production and distribution of lime Potential PPP models Joint venture o The government or cooperatives and the private partner jointly own a utility with designated equity share o The private partner naturally contributes to the entity through technology and expertise transfer Concession o Private partner operates and maintains public assets with investment and return but ownership remains with the government o This arrangement is helpful when there is a need for expansion of existing capacity Lease agreement o Private partner leases asset from the government and provides service and maintenance of the asset o This is usually beneficial when there is a need for operational gain with limited investment Source: The Potential for Private Public Partnership in Ethiopia: Kwaem A. Asubuateng: 2011; Ethiopian Investment Agency; Soil Fertility Road Map, MoA, Ethiopia, 2010; Assessment of National and Regional Soil Laboratories and Lime Crushers, Mohammed Assen, 2011; Agricultural Growth Program, 2010; Expert interviews 5

16 manufacturing and blending operations. The Ministry of Science and Technology is also an important stakeholder, given its work on the development of human resources and technology with a regulatory and responsibility role that is directly linked to the soil sector. Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) The Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority is the environmental regulatory and monitoring body that formulates policies, strategies, laws, and standards to ensure participatory environmental management for sustainable development to govern the use of environmental resources by the present and future generations in each sector at each administrative level. The state of the soil system in Ethiopia is closely linked with environmental conditions, given that soil itself is a crucial part of the environment. Hence, the EPA needs to be closely involved in the identification of environmental issues related to soil as well as in the implementation of certain solutions to address these issues, especially regarding regulation and awareness creation. The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) As per its mandate, established by federal regulation, the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency will continue to support stakeholders involved with this strategy by providing continuous problem solving expertise, supporting prioritized interventions, and acting as a coordinating body. 1.4 Methodology Developing a vision A vision is a snapshot of the future that conveys a desired situation. Given the challenges faced and the depleted nature of Ethiopia s soils, the vision statement for the sector looks to provide an illustration of what the soil system within Ethiopia could look like in the not-too-distant future. The MoA and ATA have worked closely with other stakeholders, undertaking a series of consultations to develop a vision for the soil sector. Significant analysis was then conducted to understand the issues and constraints that formed bottlenecks to the achievement of the identified vision. Further analysis around these bottlenecks and interventions to resolve them are detailed in this document Identifying soil-level and systemic bottlenecks During the bottleneck identification process, a distinction was made between soil-level and systemic bottlenecks. Due to soil being both an entity as well as a system within the country, this dichotomy helps focus solutions on two distinct issue areas that are nevertheless related. Soil-level bottlenecks refer to the physical, chemical, and biological issues found within the soils themselves, both on farmer s fields as well as within the surrounding landscapes around agricultural areas, that have direct consequences on agricultural soils and productivity. Systemic bottlenecks refer to issues within the set of entities and institutions that form Ethiopia s soil system. These include aspects related to knowledge, capability, organization, and management systems. 6

17 All bottlenecks have been identified through: (a) review and synthesis of existing diagnostic and strategy materials on the sector, (b) multiple consultations with key experts within the Ministry of Agriculture, research organizations, academia, and other development partners, and (c) other quantitative and qualitative analysis, including domestic and international case studies Designing interventions to address bottlenecks To correspond with the two types of bottlenecks identified, interventions are developed and categorized as soil-level or systemic. Interventions have been developed based on the following: Analysis of previous activities that have been successful in Ethiopia Analysis of activities in other comparable countries that can be tailored to the Ethiopian context Problem solving and idea generation in areas with limited benchmark points, by engaging with experts and stakeholders Each developed intervention includes detailed activities, timeframes for implementation, and an indication of parties involved in implementation or execution, and monitoring. To develop the soil-level and systemic interventions, this strategy has taken into consideration the national Growth and Transformation Plan of the country and the Climate Resilient-Green Economy strategy to define the intervention framework and to establish the implementation boundary. As a national guiding policy, the Growth and Transformation Plan gives policy direction for doubling agricultural production and productivity. In order to execute this strategy, the GTP outlines both high level intervention areas and detailed targets which the soil strategy has drawn on. These intervention areas and targets are grouped under three key strategic directions which include scaling up of best practice s expanding irrigation development and improved natural resources conservation, and production of high value crops: Scaling up of best practices: The average productivity of most farmers is two to three times lower than that of best farmers. Scaling up of best practices to bring up the productivity of all farmers closer to those of best farmers is the first strategic direction to be pursued during the GTP period. Expanding irrigation development and improved natural resources conservation: Multiple interventions to increase agricultural production and productivity have been underway under PASDEP. Some of these interventions have had significant impact on agricultural production and productivity in the country. To ensure the continuity of such efforts, improving different efforts by continuously strengthening them is fundamental. Hence, accelerated and sustainable agricultural growth will be secured by strengthening natural resources conservation works and expansion of irrigation coverage. Production of high value crops: A further implementation strategy is a focus on improving the incomes of farmers and pastoralists. Farmers and pastoralists will be encouraged to shift gradually from production of low to high value products. In order to do this, utilizing existing technologies as well as introduction of improved agricultural practices and technologies is critical. Further, a transparent, efficient and effective agricultural marketing system that will include inputs and outputs will be put in place in order to ensure capacity meets increased production following the scaling up strategy. 7

18 In addition to the GTP, this strategy has also taken into consideration Ethiopia s Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy. The CRGE strategy aims at overcoming the challenges for developing a green economy by focusing on four pillars that will support Ethiopia s economic development. Adoption of agricultural and land use efficiency measures Increased Green House Gas sequestration in forestry, i.e., protecting and re-establishing forests for their economic and ecosystem services including carbon stocks Development of renewable and clean power generation Use of appropriate advanced technologies in industry, transport and buildings. Of these four key strategic components, the first two are directly related to the Soil Sector. The core initiatives proposed under the two strategic directions that are pertinent to crop production and soil sector include the following: Intensify agriculture through usage of improved inputs and better residue management resulting in decreased requirement for additional agricultural land that would primarily be taken from forests, Create new agricultural land in degraded areas through small-, medium-, and large-scale irrigation to reduce the pressure on forests if expansion of the cultivated area becomes necessary, Introduce lower-emission agricultural techniques, ranging from the use of carbon-and nitrogenefficient crop cultivators to the promotion of organic fertilizers. These measures would reduce emission from already cultivated areas. Reduce demand for fuel wood via the dissemination and usage of fuel-efficient stoves and/or alternative-fuel cooking and baking techniques leading to reduced forest degradation, Increase afforestation, reforestation, and forest management to increase carbon sequestration in forests and woodlands, Promoting area closure via-rehabilitation of degraded pastureland and farmland to enhance soil fertility as well as ensure additional carbon sequestration These core initiatives underlined in the CRGE call for specific systemic and grass-root level interventions. The initiatives proposed in this five year Soil Sector Strategy will help achieve the core interventions under CRGE through identifying and developing specific sub-interventions that help address the soillevel bottlenecks and the systemic bottlenecks that limit increased agricultural production and productivity. Therefore, by basing the intervention areas on the above three main strategic directions under the GTP and the four strategic pillars of the CRGE, a set of targeted interventions has been developed to address and overcome the constraints posed by bottlenecks within the sector at both the soil-level and systemic levels. 8

19 2. Overall vision for the soil system and bottlenecks identified within it 2.1. Overview Based on the approach described above, stakeholders within the Ethiopian soil system have outlined the following long-term vision for Ethiopia s soil health and fertility: Overall vision for Ethiopia s soil system: A balanced soil health and fertility system that helps farmers possess and maintain sustained high-quality and fertile soils, through the implementation of appropriate soil-management techniques, the provision of required inputs, and the facilitation of the appropriate enablers, including knowledge and finance. Over the last decade, the Ethiopian soil sector has taken various steps towards fulfilling this long-term vision. A number of developments in the involvement of various stakeholders signal a fundamental shift towards an environment where more actors are engaged. Below are four categories of soil improvement efforts that are relevant for leveraging learning points to further improve the soil system. The first part mainly focuses on important soil improvement work conducted under the Productivity Safety Net Program (PSNP) and Sustainable Land Management (SLM) programs in which multiple government institutions are responsible for full implementation and execution in collaboration with different development partners. The second part focuses on interventions designed under the 5-year Soil Health and Fertility Roadmap developed by the Ministry of Agriculture in which the Ministry and Regional Bureaus of Agriculture are responsible for implementation and execution in collaboration with different development partners. The third part focuses on key previous soil development interventions that have brought about fundamental change in the soils of Ethiopia. The final part highlights the role played by civic societies in Ethiopia. Therefore, the review of the programs and their progress is assessed to better leverage efforts that are related to the soil system. Accordingly, below is a review of soil related interventions that have been carried out by different government institutes, such as the MoA and MoFED, with multiple departments participating in the effective implementation of the programs. Sustainable Land Management (SLM): The SLM project was born after the MoA-RD, RBoAs, and development partners (including GIZ, WB, WFP, and ILRI) agreed in 2004 to redirect the national soil and water conservation activities through the implementation of Community Based Participatory Watershed Development (CBPWD) program. In 2006, the Government of Ethiopia (GoE) and its national and regional wings started working with development partners, particularly GTZ, SIDA, WFP, and FAO, among others. to develop best practices for sustainable land management in order to reduce land degradation in agricultural landscapes and improve the agricultural productivity of smallholder farmers in 35 watersheds in 6 regional states. This project is expected to cover a total of 250,000 hectares of land benefiting 500,000 people. The SLM project is designed to combine the benefits of land tenure security and sustainable land and water management practices in watersheds and under three main technical components, which are (i) Community Based Participatory Watershed Management, (ii) Rural Land Certification and Administration, and (iii) Project Management. This sector document will focus on reviewing the first component of the program that should help to further develop the efforts for effectively addressing soil-level bottlenecks discussed in this document. o Community Based Participatory Watershed Management: the objective of this component is to support the scaling-up of best management practices in sustainable land management and technologies for smallholder farmers in the high-potential/food secure areas that are increasingly becoming vulnerable to land degradation and food 9

20 o o o insecurity. Under this component there are five sub-components: (a) Capacity building; (b) Communal land and gully rehabilitation; (c) Farmland and homestead development; (d) Community infrastructure; Capacity building: Under the objective of strengthening institutional technical capacity, a total of 15,671 participants (of which 3,877 were woreda experts and 11,794 were DAs) plus beneficiary farmers who have roles in the preparation of sub-watershed plans were trained on problem identification, prioritization, activity identification, and action plan preparation for community watershed management and best SLM practices. The above was completed as of July Communal land and gully rehabilitation: The major activity of this component focuses on rehabilitating hillsides, gullies, and grazing land through physical and biophysical measures. Accordingly, a total of 34,871 hectares of communal land (hillsides, grazing, and gully lands) were been treated as of the July 2012 reporting period. The treatments included area closure and application of various biophysical measures. Of these lands, 19,662 hectares were addressed by area closure management, 28,458 hectares were treated by applying 11 different physical measures, and 368 gully lands were treated by applying 8 different physical measures. Biological measures such as tree and grass planting and direct sawing were also applied in 3,675 hectares of communal land. Farmland and homestead development: Under this component, in which treating degraded cultivated lands using physical and biophysical measures, close to 34,785 hectares of cultivated land was treated by applying 12 types of physical and 3 biological land management practices, as of July Of this total, 20,662 hectares were treated by physical measures and 12,905 hectares were treated by biological measures. o Community infrastructure (development of irrigation mechanisms): As of July 2012, construction and maintenance of 22 km of small-scale irrigation diversion canals, construction of 7 diversion weirs, and provision of 105 different kinds of water lifting technologies were carried out, enabling the irrigation potential of about 669 hectares of land Productivity Safety Net Program (PSNP): PSNP is a federal government program implemented largely through government systems and structures. The nature of the program does not fit neatly into the mandate of a single government agency or department. Rather, the objectives of the PSNP span the mandates of two Ministries and multiple departments within each Ministry. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) is responsible for the management of the PSNP, with the Disaster Risk Management and Food Security Sector (DRMFSS) responsible for overall program coordination. The PSNP was designed between late 2003 and the end of 2004, with a plan to begin implementation at the start of The objective of the PSNP ( ) is to assure food consumption and prevent asset depletion for rural food-insecure households. This is to be done in a way that stimulates markets, improves access to services and natural resources, and rehabilitates and enhances the natural environment in 290 woredas (in all regions except Gambela) for close to 8 million beneficiaries. o Soil and water conservation: Under the PSNP, soil and water conservation (through area closure, and soil and stone embankment construction) are the key activities carried out in the different woredas. According to a PSNP program review report on lessons learned from , 167,150 hectares of land were rehabilitated through area closure and 91,454 km of soil and 284,730 km of stone embankment were constructed. 10

21 As described above, the MoA, in collaboration with the RBoAs, research institutes, and other private and public institutions, has developed a five-year roadmap for improving soil health and fertility conditions in Ethiopia, starting from This roadmap has three major implementation components: 1. Strengthening the technology generation and knowledge base that focuses on developing improved technologies for acid soils and vertisols management, unlocking knowledge gaps on fertility limitations in Ethiopia, increasing fertilizer use, strengthening bio-fertilizer research and organic production systems, and strengthening improved and sustainable land management systems. 2. Scaling-up of best practices which focus on organic matter input application and management practices through: composting, intercropping, bio-fertilizer production and dissemination, agroforestry, and other land management practices. 3. Capacity-building activities that primarily focus on building a soil information database, improving the human and infrastructural capacity and capability of NSTC and the RSTLs, and the establishment of fertilizer blending plants. The overall implementation strategy is led by a Steering Committee that comprises the Minister of Agriculture as a chair, the State Minister of Agriculture, the Minister s Advisor-State Minister, and heads of EIAR and NSTC, to oversee these interventions of national priority. Among the planned interventions in the Sector Strategy, the following are currently making implementation progress: 1. Strengthening technology generation and knowledge base Ethiopian soil atlas development: In collaboration with the World Bank and UNDP, and with support from the ATA, the MoA and its National Soil Testing Center (NSTC) has launched an initiative to develop the Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthioSIS). The objective of this initiative is to establish a national soil information database and digital fertility mapping. This should be achieved through landscape data collection and processing, and the development of a best-in-class soil fertility atlas and soil information system that can deliver an in-depth database of soil information from across the nation. The results should provide scientists and policy makers the information necessary to make informed soil fertility decisions, and to tailor their approaches according to regional soil differences. The project focuses on collecting and analyzing soil samples, capacitating soil laboratories, and fertility data collection. Accordingly, the initiative has thusfar managed to collect and analyze soil samples from 22 confluence points, started procurement to better equip soil laboratories, and started collecting soil fertility data from 83 woredas across Ethiopia. Acidic soil amendment: This acid soil management effort is a project of the national extension program, launched by the MoA, EIAR, RARIs, and RBoAs in The aims of the project are to reclaim and manage acid soils through the use of lime by farmers, and to trial and test lime qualities and the impact of its application on major crops. Additional major interventions include the development of acid tolerant crops, an assessment of the extent of acid soils in the country, and the development of an acid information database. Improved technologies for acid soil reclamation and the distribution of lime to acid soil areas targeted 2,708 hectares of land. And, in order to facilitate lime production, 5 lime crushing plants were procured and distributed to four major regions, of which two crushers were delivered to the Oromia Region and one to Tigray the remaining three are going through the federal procurement process. Accordingly, based on a recent report, from the total planned lime production and distribution of 132,200 quintals in the 2011/12 fiscal year, only 39,217 quintals were produced and 31,145 were distributed, because of inefficiencies in the production system. In addition, limited soil analysis capacity of testing laboratories decelerated the 11

22 progress of appropriate lime recommendations. To solve this problem, the MoA is now proposing to purchase three high-capacity crushers, to be installed in three regions and handed-over to private agro-dealers on credit. Vertisols management: Vertisol management is a national extension program, particularly in the Amhara and Oromia regions, which is led by a similar body and funding source. In order to reduce the effects of waterlogging, a modified plough called a broad bed maker (BBM) has been introduced and is being disseminated across the four major regions. Although the technology has been in use for nearly three decades, there was initial resistance by farmers and experts. The major reasons for this being the heaviness of the plough preventing oxen from pulling it under wet soil conditions, and incorrect traditional farming beliefs. In order to address this, the program has designed a scale-up package to popularize the technology. With the help of private sector companies, the scale-up activity is trying to better develop the equipment, and to disseminate it to 1.1 million hectares of highland vertisol areas where waterlogging is an issue. The project is still in its initial stage, with less than 200 thousand hectares of vertisol covered land having been drained and cultivated so far. This is due to the narrow timeframe between the dry and wet seasons. However, with the production of the latest BBM technology, the problem is being addressed. Improving inorganic fertilizer recommendations: There are two separate agendas here: one being testing different inorganic fertilizers, other than Urea and DAP, in different soils and crops initiated by the MoA; the other is rolling out the activity based on the findings and recommendations. These two programs are fully underway, one run by the extension system to popularize through demonstrations at FTCs and model farmers, and the other through research level fertilizer tests. There have also been multiple initiatives by stakeholders to organize new fertilizer demonstrations, and to develop crop and soil specific recommendations. However, various contributing factors have prevented these crop and soil specific recommendation initiative from succeeding. Currently, there is another initiative underway by the MoA, with support from the ATA and AGP, to demonstrate different fertilizers. This project aims to be completed by March 2013, with its findings providing new fertilizer recommendations, including alternatives to the conventional DAP and urea application. Establishment of fertilizer blending plants: Through the support of the ATA, MoA, and RBoAs, an initiative is underway to establish four fertilizer blending plants in the four major agricultural regions. The initiative will be based on various fertilizer tests helping to indicate the initial blended formulas to be developed. At the time of this strategy document s completion, the project proposal called for the completion of four blending plants in Parallel to that, the initiative is pursuing the need to import two fertilizer blends from abroad and to conduct trial demonstrations on a wide range of FTCs and farmer plots in Scaling-up of best practices Compost Production and dissemination of new technology: The MoA, in collaboration with RARIs and RBoAs, has launched a five-year strategy for the scaling-up of compost production and application to almost all farmers in the country. In addition, they are introducing a compost product, such as vermin composting, to 25% of the total farmers. The first program has now covered close to 80% of the total farmers across Ethiopia. This means that out of 114 million metric cube of prepared compost, close to 111 million metric cube has been used. However the quality of the compost leaves much to be desired, and the research system is currently working to develop a better approach. The introduction of the new compost product, called vermin-compost, is in the initial 12

23 stages. Furthermore, the introduction and dissemination of other organic matter sources detailed in the five year strategy have yet to take off, including: Azzola compost, green manuring technologies, agricultural and urban waste, and the import of organic fertilizer solutions. Scaling-up rhizobia production: Rhizobium is a soil bacterium that fixes nitrogen (diazotrophs) after becoming established inside root nodules of legumes. The National Soil Lab multiplies nitrogenreleasing rhizobia for legumes and phosphate-releasing cultures on a regular basis, as a mandate from the MoA. In parallel, under the same responsible body and funding source, the NSTC and RSTLs are disseminating this bacterium to all regions. In some areas, the technology is in its early stages of demonstration, with farmers being introduced to the technology. However, in a few areas the technology has already been demonstrated and farmers are actually incorporating this into their farming practice. According to the plan to increase the distribution of bio-fertilizer by tenfold, the plan in 2010/2011 was to distribute 2,625,000 grams of rhizobium. However, the actual distribution was only 1,875,000 grams. This was not due to lack of production of the bio-fertilizer, but rather to the demand from farmers being less than predicted, as a result of less effort by the extension system in promoting the technology. By contrast, in 2011/2012, the demand for the technology was close to 4 million grams; however, due to reduced production capacity, the actual volume disseminated was only 1,750,000 grams. In order to close the demand and production gap, the MoA is in the process of ordering the necessary equipment to increase the rhizobia multiplication capacity in 4 regional STLs. However, the Bahir Dar Soil Testing Laboratory and a private company are also engaged in the multiplication and dissemination of effective rhizobia through the extension system. This is a strategy that might be leveraged by other soil testing laboratories as well. Agroforestry (Biomass coverage): By the guidance and support from the Steering Committee, the MoA, in collaboration with the Regional Agriculture Bureaus, is currently scaling-up agroforestry practices in Ethiopia. The intervention includes growing special species of acacia trees, such as Acacia albida, Gliricidia, and Sesbama, in the those areas with less biomass coverage. This program has been operational since 2011 and is planned to be completed by To date, the program has distributed close to 4.5 million seedlings of Acacia albida trees to farmers in the Tigray, Amhara, and Oromia Regions, with plans to increase the dissemination to 100 million seedlings in Oromia, Amhara, Tigray, and SNNPR by the end of Capacity-building Strengthening trained manpower development: This part of the Strategy focuses on developing the knowledge base of the NSTC and RSTL s new and existing staff, in order to strengthen retention, through long-term and short-term training and career structure development. Once again, the Steering Committee is responsible for oversight of this intervention, with the NSTC and RSTL equally responsible for execution of the plan. The primary funding source for this is the federal and regional institutes involved in the execution of the plan, with additional support from AGP. Since launching the effort in 2011, on-the-job training has been delivered to 15 new staff at the Gambela Soil Lab, and refreshment training was provided for an additional 17 staff members at the RSTL. Establishment of fertilizer blending plant: An initiative is already underway to establish the first fertilizer blending plants in Ethiopia. Four new physical fertilizer blending plants in Tigray, Amhara, 13

24 Oromiya and SNNPR regions will be established at cooperative unions, with capacity of over 250,000 tons per year. A project team has already been on the ground to establish four blending plants. Finally, there are several relevant previous efforts, undertaken by the federal and regional governments in the last several decades, that are worth noting: Strengthening the fertilizer value chain: In 1992/93, with support from the World Bank, the Ethiopian government formed a project to support fertilizer market development in Ethiopia (Ethiopia National Fertilizer Project, ENFP). The aim of the ENFP was increasing agricultural production and productivity with an emphasis on fertilizer demand and supply, soil fertility management, and fertilizer policy reform. Since then, national fertilizer consumption has increased almost three-fold. National fertilizer consumption at the beginning of the 1970s (when it was first introduced) was about 950 tons. Through the 1980s, this volume rose to 43,200 tons. It further increased to 250,000 tons (21 kg/ha) in 1995, and then to 323,000 tons (32 kg/ha) in 2004/05. This growth of total fertilizer consumption was more rapid than the average for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) over the same period, with the average use of fertilizer per hectare almost double the average for Sub-Saharan Africa. This rapid improvement was partly due to the 1995 decision by the Ethiopian government to allow farmers to buy fertilizer with 100 percent credit. Organic matter input application: Significant efforts have been made to promote compost production, both by the federal and regional agriculture bureaus, in collaboration with development partners such as the WFP MERET (Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transitions to More Sustainable Livelihoods) program. According to the WFP report, the program has promoted compost making in all regions in Ethiopia, through human capacity development packages. Furthermore, the GTZ Sun Oromia Project report states that household-based compost production is being aggressively promoted after training was carried out in 2009 for 79 participants in Holetta. Saline soil amendment: A project was carried out, from 2008 to 2010, by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, to improve productivity of salt-affected soils through amelioration and management practices in the Melka Sadic State Farm, Lower Awash, Arbaminch, and Zewaye areas. Soil structural deterioration: Deep plowing to break up soil crust was introduced in the Amhara Region in the early 1990s, through the support of GIZ. Farmers used a plow technology called Tenkara Kende, meaning Strong Arm, which helps provide better soil penetration in areas with compacted soils. However, for various unknown reason, the activity failed to scale-up to other areas with similar problems. Conservation agriculture: Among various key soil fertility engagement efforts, conservation tillage by Sasakawa Global 2000 (SG 2000) is particularly pertinent. From , this development activity tried to demonstrate reduced tillage on maize crops in the Oromia and Amhara Regions. The results showed that reduced tillage on farmer field demonstration plots, using herbicides to control weeds, produced higher yields than under conventional tillage. In fact, average maize yield for the two years, based on 423 demonstration plots, was 620 kg per hectare higher. Reduced tillage, which 14

25 has been tried by the MoA and RBoAs at different times, needs to be scaled-up for improved agricultural productivity and soil fertility. Finally, various professional societies in Ethiopia play significant role in making use of the soil resource and fertility contributions to different actors that are interested in utilizing soil resource and fertility inputs. These societies include the Ethiopian Society of Soil Science and the Ethiopian Society of Forest Science (ESFS), the Crop Science Society of Ethiopia and Biological Society of Ethiopia. These civic societies constitute non-profit, non-government and scientific professional associations which have been established to contribute to food security, poverty reduction, sustainable development and environmental protection. It is composed of scientists working on hosts of disciplines including but not limited to soil, water, climate, agro-forestry, crop, livestock, socio-economics and policy related issues. These societies have been established to strengthen the national capacity of research, development and higher learning institutions by forming national and international network that broadens the knowledge base and experiences in natural resources management; they continue to contribute immensely to the development of scientific knowledge in the country on soil, water, climate and environment at large. However, above and beyond these past efforts, more can be done to systematically accelerate the positive trend of previous years. This Sector Strategy will be building on the existing MoA 5-year sector strategy summarized above. Specific actions must be guided by a vision for what they aim to achieve and how they contribute to the long-term transformation of the sector. In order to do so, understanding the comprehensive dynamics of the bottlenecks is necessary Soil-level bottlenecks Each of the soil-level bottlenecks has negative impact to soil health in terms of physical, chemical, and biological conditions and to soil fertility (Exhibit 1). Soil health is the capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within the ecosystem and land-use boundaries, for various purposes, such as: sustaining biological productivity; regulating water flow; storing and cycling nutrients; filtering, buffering, and transforming organic and inorganic materials; and also being a habitat and genetic reserve for numerous organisms. Soil fertility can be defined as the status of a soil, with respect to the amount and availability to plants of elements necessary for plant growth. 7 The impact here, as shown in the exhibit below, is evaluated through qualitative judgment from various experts in the sector. Exhibit 1: List of soil-level bottlenecks and level of impact on the soil 7 Baker, D.E. and Eldershaw, V.J. Interpreting soil analyses - for agricultural land use in Queensland. Dept. of Primary Industries, Project Report Series QO93014, Australia,

26 1. Organic matter depletion There are various causes of organic matter depletion, which include poor farming practices with insufficient use of organic inputs, excessive tillage, over grazing, and deforestation. Organic residues are rarely utilized for the purpose of conserving and improving organic matter; instead, they are mainly used for feed, building materials, and fuel, and therefore are not being returned to the soil. In particular, the traditional organic matter application of livestock dung has been decreasing over time due to the competing use of dung as an energy source. The complete removal of crop residues from agricultural lands deprives the soil of its cover and exposes it to erosion. The greatest loss of organic matter is on croplands, due to poor land management practices. Ethiopia s soil carbon content is extremely low, far below the absolute standards for a productive soil environment. Comparative measurements of the extent of depletion of organic matter in some soils of Ethiopian highlands show that the rate of loss from cultivated land is 43% of those under natural vegetation. 8 The soil analysis conducted in the various soil testing labs across the nation, in coordination with NSTC, shows that the soil organic carbon content is rarely over 3%. An analysis manual complied by the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) considers organic carbon content to be high over 3%, moderate between 1.5% and 3%, and low when below 1.5%. 9 As highlighted in the Ethiopian 8 Asnakew Woldeab and Piccolo A. Organic matter depletion of some highland sites of Ethiopia, Tekalign, Tadesse, Haque, I., and Aduayi, E.A. Soil, plant, water, fertilizer, animal manure and compost analysis manual. Plant Science Division working Document 13, ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,

27 highlands by ICRAF 10, the organic matter cover at that time was below the standard. Given the extensive agricultural activity since that time, and the reduced organic matter management efforts, organic matter content will most likely decrease further (Exhibit 2). The majority of the highlands, where agriculture is the predominant activity, register low organic carbon storage. Though the database for organic matter content has been absent for the last 30 years, given that 3 percent of the organic matter in the soil (which is close to 105 million tons of organic matter) is expected to be lost annually by topsoil erosion, the current soil organic matter is likely to be in a critical condition. In addition, population increase compels most farmers to shorten or completely abandon the fallow practice without any alternate means of restoration of soil organic matter. Therefore, in order to improve soil organic matter content, strengthening and scaling-up compost preparation and promotion efforts by the MoA and RBoAs is critical to improve soil organic matter composition. This would include increasing the compost preparation of close to 115 million metric cubes and usage of close to 111 million metric cubes to a level where the compost is available to major production and agricultural areas. Exhibit 2: level of organic matter depletion in different parts of Ethiopia 10 Braun, A.X. and EL Muchugu; Maintenance and Improvement of Soil Productivity in the Highlands of Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar and Uganda, Geomorphology and Soils (1984) Towns; ICRAF (International Center for Agricultural Forestry),

28 2. Soil fauna/flora depletion The soil biota, including soil microbial biomass (soil flora) and soil fauna provide the means and regulate the transformation of organically bound nutrients into plant available forms through decomposition and mineralization. They also contribute to nutrient cycling and symbiotic processes in the rhizosphere. Furthermore, the process of litter decomposition is critical to maintain the proper functioning of natural and managed ecosystems. Beneficial soil organisms, if properly and effectively utilized, are the cheapest and most readily available options for the peasant farmers to increase agricultural productivity, through sustainable maintenance of soil fertility. However, it is believed that there has been a decline in activity and diversity of soil fauna and flora, mainly due to organic matter and plant nutrient depletion, soil acidity, and topsoil erosion. It is also due to a lack of attention on conservation of microbial biodiversity. Thus, the problem of how best to use and conserve natural resources and biodiversity while achieving sustainable yields must be given adequate emphasis. In order to address this issue, the injection of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is important as it helps to improve the soil s biological organisms through fixing atmospheric nitrogen. However, in 2011/12, the production and the demand for this technology failed to match. The demand for the technology was close to 4 million grams; however, due to reduced production capacity, the actual production and amount disseminated was only 1.75 million grams. In order to close the demand and production gap, the MoA is in the process of ordering the necessary equipment to build rhizobia multiplication capacity in 4 regional STLs. In line with that, the Bahir Dar soil testing laboratory and a private company are also engaged in the multiplication and dissemination of effective rhizobia through the extension system. In order to scale-up the process, the development and effective dissemination of biofertilizer inoculum, particularly that of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) which was started in the country recently, will only be effective if the inoculum materials are produced in the country in sufficient quantities, and only if regional agricultural experts receive sufficient theoretical and practical knowledge in this field of science. 3. Nutrient depletion Due to the fact that Ethiopian farmers use a very low level of external inputs, organic material serves as the major source of plant nutrients. Consequently, decline in total organic matter often results in nutrient exhaustion and lower crop yields. However, the application of inorganic fertilizer has historically not been sufficient to supplement the exhaustion. In 2009, inorganic fertilizer input of macronutrients was 0.29 ton/km 2 of agricultural land in Ethiopia compared to 10 ton/km 2 of agricultural land in Kenya. 11 Moreover, out of the 13 nutrients known to limit crop growth and yields, only nitrogen and phosphorus, in the form of DAP/urea, is being applied in Ethiopia, creating a shortage and imbalance. The limited application inevitably leads to the depletion of nutrients from soil, as the uptake occurs in the soil and the replenishment is not in place. A rough analysis, from 2003 to 2010, shows that the majority of the macronutrient uptake in major crops wheat, maize, barley, and sorghum came from the nutrients residing in the soils (Exhibit 3). According to CSA s Agricultural Sample Survey data from 2003/04 to 2010/11, the total actual production of these cereals was close to 79 million tons. 12 Based on the International Fertilizer Association s (IFA) suggested fertilizer application rate, nutrient uptake close to 4.3 million tons of Agricultural Sample survey and Agricultural farm management Input practices. CSA (Central Statistics Agency), 2003/ /11. 18

29 nitrogen, phosphate, and potash is required to produce this much maize, wheat, barley, and sorghum. 13 However, CSA s Farm Management Practice data from 2003/04 to 2010/11 shows that the actual amount of fertilizer applied was 1.6 million tons, and when considering that a limited amount of nutrients from the fertilizer is actually taken up by the crops, more than 3.7 million tons of nutrients were taken from the soil. A large portion of the uptake of nitrogen, which is the most important micronutrient for crop growth, is coming from the soil, given the untailored fertilizer formula and insufficient amounts applied. The situation with phosphate is not much different. And when it comes to potash, which hasn t historically been applied, it leaves the entire burden to the soils, continuing the historical depletion. In addition to the macronutrient depletion by crop nutrient uptake, topsoil erosion and crop residue removal also result in macronutrient depletion from the soil. In 2000, there were 5 million kilograms of nitrogen and 11 million kilograms of phosphate lost annually by topsoil erosion and land degradation in Ethiopia. Moreover, the nutrient loss due to the burning of crop residues and livestock manure in the Amhara, Benashagul-Gumuz, Harari, SNNP, and Tigray Regions was 68,894 tons of nitrogen and 21,163 tons of phosphate. 14 In order to address this, different interventions by the government need to be strengthened and further developed to improve the nutrient composition of the soil, such as: developing soil testbased recommendations, and conducting fertilizer trials to test and recommend appropriate combinations of nutrients for the soil and crops. Exhibit 3: Level of macronutrient uptake by major cereal crops and rate of fertilizer application 13 World Fertilizer Use Manual. IFA (International Fertilizer Industries Association), Tamirie Hawando. Cost of Land Degradation in Ethiopia: a Critical Review of Past Studies. IFPRI, EEPFE,

30 4. Biomass coverage removal The country has limited coverage of biomass, which helps maintain soil health and fertility by restoring organic matter, providing cover against soil erosion, and generating an alternative source of fodder and energy. Biomass consists of different types of plant life, including trees, shrubs, and grass. Among them, tree coverage is one of the biomasses that has significant impact on agriculture. The forest coverage in Ethiopia has been decreasing continuously for the last 20 years. According to FAO s report, Ethiopia is among the top ten countries in the world with high woodland removal from the total forest and wood-covered areas. 15 However, due to the continuous national afforestation efforts, the woodland coverage has increased significantly for the last 20 years, despite the 1% p.a. deforestation that is on-going 16 (Exhibit 4). Though this provides some relief, the fact that non-forest biomass coverage is decreasing is another critical problem. Decrease of biomass coverage results in limited alternative livestock feed and fuel, other than crop residue, leading to reduced crop residue usage for organic matter in farming fields. In Ethiopia, the coverage of grasslands has more than halved from 1980 to 2000, mainly due to uncontrolled grazing. The number of livestock has increased significantly from 58 million in 1995/6 to 107 million in 2009/10, which is almost double in 14 years. 17 This indicates that the lack of livestock feed has become a more serious problem, and will continue to be so given the trend of continuous increase in the number of livestock. 15 Global Forest Resource Assessment, FAO, Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project. MoA, Forest Resources of Ethiopia, CSA 20

31 In order to address this bottleneck, building on different government and development partner efforts (such as communal land and gully rehabilitation and farmland and homestead developments under a community-based participatory watershed development program) is critical for efficient resource utilization and effective implementation of additional interventions. Exhibit 4: Time series trend of biomass coverage removal 5. Soil structural deterioration Soil structural deterioration is a form of physical degradation of soils that is often difficult to observe directly. Formation of a surface crust when the soils dry and the presence of a cultivation pan are often indicators of soil structural deterioration. This prevents seedling emergence and affects root growth and development. It also reduces the rate at which water can infiltrate the soil, and increases the amount of work that is required to cultivate the soil. Nowadays, soil structural deterioration (often called soil compaction) is increasingly becoming a critical problem in some parts of the country, particularly in acidic and waterlogged (vertisols) areas. It leads to lower root penetration and reduced water entry and storage in the soil. This particular problem can be addressed using organic matter input applications and management methods and through the use of deep ploughs such as Tenkara Kende. 21

32 Therefore, given the previous effort by GIZ, leveraging and scaling-up to popularize this technology, along with heavy engagement in the production and distribution of the plough equipment, can accelerate the rate of agricultural productivity and soil health fertility improvement in areas affected by soil compaction. 6. Soil erosion Soil erosion in Ethiopia has been a significant focus of concern and policy measure since the early agricultural development endeavors. Soil erosion is the major cause of on-site topsoil loss (causing shallow soils and soil depth loss) and off-site soil sedimentation (caused by flooding of topsoils from highland areas to low stream areas). Significant amounts of fertile topsoil are eroded, mainly due to water and wind erosion, which leads to severe depletion of nutrients and organic matter in upstream areas and over-deposition in downstream ones. This process also reduces the effective soil depth in the upstream areas, in addition to many other harmful effects. The magnitude of such losses varies from place to place, depending on the degree of erosion and the nutrient content of the soil in question. According to the 1992 Ethiopia Forest Action Progress report, estimates indicate that billion tons of soil is lost annually. 18 Another estimate states that out of the cultivated range and pasture lands in the country, which is close to 780,000 km 2, annual soil loss ranges from 1.3 to 7.8 billion metric tons. 19 When converting this to the per hectare annual rate, it amounts to topsoil loss of tonnes/hectare per year, which is among the highest rate in the world. 20 An Ethiopian highland reclamation study done by FAO in 1984 estimates the degraded area on the highlands to be 27 million hectares, of which 14 million hectares are very seriously eroded, with 2 million hectares having reached a point of no return. Another FAO study in 2000 showed that, compared to some other East African and developing countries with similar topography and agricultural practices, Ethiopia ranked as the fourth highest country, with 31% of its total land eroded. 21 In order to address the situation, federal and regional governments, through the support of development partners, have undergone multiple soil conservation efforts in erosion-risk areas and cultivation lands. This has been done via different programs, of which the Productivity Safety Net Program (PSNP) is one. Strengthening these efforts is important to scale-up and disseminate to other erosion-prone areas, as an all-inclusive measure. Exhibit 5: Soil erosion of exposed land, with respect to the total available land 18 Soil and Water Conservation working paper 15. Ethiopian Forestry Action Progress, Tamirie Hawando. Cost of Land Degradation in Ethiopia: a Critical Review of Past Studies. IFPRI, EEPFE, Review on Soil Carbon Sequestration in Ethiopia for Climate Change Adaptation, Abebe Shiferaw, World Soil Resources Report: Land Resource Potential and Constraints at Regional and Country Levels. FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization),

33 7. Salinity/alkalinity/sodicity In Ethiopia, saline and sodic/alkali soils (salt affected soils) are found mainly in the arid and semiarid, less leached area of the northeastern, eastern, and southeastern parts of the country. In saline and sodic soils, plant growth and yields can be considerably reduced, due to high soil osmotic concentration and deficiency of elements such as Fe, Mn, and Cu. Physical properties of sodic soils are also not conducive to satisfactory plant growth. The problem usually appears when the soils are put under production with full or supplementary irrigation. In 2000, 5% of the total land in Ethiopia was estimated to be saline, which is a relatively high figure compared to other neighboring nations in East Africa. 22 (Exhibit 6) Exhibit 6: Total salt-affected land in Ethiopia 22 World Soil Resources Report: Land Resource Potential and Constraints at Regional and Country Levels. FAO,

34 8. Acidity Soil acidity is a complex process resulting in the formation of an acid soil, due to excessive concentration of non-soluble and toxic ions in the soil solution. In the context of agricultural problem soils, acid soils are soils in which acidity dominates the problems related to agricultural land use. 23 Crop yields in acid soils are frequently reduced by 50% and can sometimes drop to zero. Increased soil acidity may lead to a host of problems, including: reduced yields, poor plant vigor, uneven pasture and crop growth, poor nodulation of legumes, stunted root growth, persistence of acid-tolerant weeds, increased incidence of diseases, and abnormal leaf colors. Increased acidity is also likely to lead to poor plant growth and poor water use efficiency, as a result of nutrient deficiencies and imbalance, P fixation, and/or induced aluminum and manganese toxicity. 24 In Ethiopia, vast areas of land in the western, southern, southwestern, northwestern, and even the central highlands of the country (which receive high rainfall) are thought to be affected by soil acidity. 25 Currently, it is estimated that about 40% of the total arable land of Ethiopia is affected by soil acidity 26 (Exhibit 7). Of this land area, about 27.7% is moderately acidic (ph in KCl ) and about 13.2% is strongly acidic (ph in KCl < 4.5). Also, the acidification is estimated to be growing 23 Kamprath, E.J., Crop response to lime on soils in the tropics, Fox, RH. Soil ph, aluminum saturation and crop yield. Soil Sci Mesfin Abebe. Nature and Management of Ethiopian Soils, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Ethiopia, Taye Bekele, An overview of acid soils and their management in Ethiopia,

35 more severe over time, and lime supply (which is one of the effective ways to address acidity) is far below the required demand. As a rehabilitation effort, federal and regional bureaus of agriculture are engaged in robust lime production and dissemination efforts. Based on a recent report, the production of lime is not efficient enough to meet the demand for the input. In order to address that, the MoA and RBoAs are working closely to construct additional lime crushers. Thus, strengthening this effort and capacitating the existing lime crushers on a national scale is equally important, both in terms of capacity building and acid soil management. Exhibit 7: Total acid affected soils in Ethiopia 9. Waterlogging In most parts of the central highlands, on level planes and gently sloping hills, where soils are heavy and dominated by smectite clay minerals, internal drainage is very low, causing a serious waterlogging problem during the main rainy season. Unless they are properly drained, such soils cannot be used for crop production during the normal growth period. Instead they are mostly left for grazing during the rainy season. Because of their workability problems, waterlogged lands cannot be easily managed with the traditional plows owned by most farmers. In some areas they are used for growing some short- 25

36 season crops that are planted at the end of the rainy season; particularly crops that can make use of the reserve moisture in the soil. For this reason, a large acreage of land is either out of production or gives very low yields. Areas covered mostly with vertisols are very vulnerable to the issue of waterlogging, and these areas cover 10% of the total land of Ethiopia 27 (Exhibit 8). The government of Ethiopia, both at the federal and regional level, is promoting and disseminating a new technology called a broad-bed maker (BBM). According to a recent report, this program has helped to manage waterlogged areas. Strengthening these efforts for scale-up is critical in order to address this problem more efficiently. Exhibit 8: Vertisols distribution in Ethiopia 10. Low moisture availability Most rain-fed regions are exposed to low moisture content in soil during the dry season, lacking sufficient water supply during crop growth. Areas with rainfall of mm, which are arid and semi-arid areas, are dry lands presenting difficulties for rain-fed agriculture. Also, the hyper-arid areas (also called deserts), have annual rainfall of less than 100mm. More than 40% of Ethiopia s total land falls under hyper-arid and dry land areas, which are going through severe water 27 Atlas of the Ethiopian Rural Economy. CSA, IFPRI and EDRI,

37 availability issues, much worse than most other surrounding nations 28 (Exhibit 9). The ASARECA (Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa) in collaboration with USAID and ILRI stated that ~50% of Ethiopia s land was arid or semi-arid in 2012, characterized by low, erratic, and highly-inconsistent rainfall levels with poor soil moisture and soil quality. 29 With a significant portion of the country s farming areas falling under the dry lands, it is essential to address this. The government of Ethiopia, in collaboration with different development partners, is heavily engaged in addressing land rehabilitation and homestead development efforts. These include different biological measures, such as tree planting via the Sustainable Land Management (SLM) project, under the Community Based Watershed Management program. Also, tree and plant coverage efforts, to improve moisture availability in moisture deficit areas, has been done by the federal and regional governments. However, these efforts need to be sustained and scaled-up to other moisture deficit areas. Exhibit 9: Desert and dry land coverage in Ethiopia 28 World Soil Resources Report: Land Resource Potential and Constraints at Regional and Country Levels. FAO, Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity Conservation in the Dry-lands of Eastern and Central Africa. ASARECA,

38 11. Soil pollution Soil pollution, or soil contamination, is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alterations in the natural soil environment. Specifically, it is often caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, and/or municipal waste disposals. The rate and extent of application of these chemicals on agricultural land was not a major concern until recently. However, looking at the current rate of urbanization, industrialization, and the extent of agro-chemical use in Ethiopia, soil pollution will be a major concern in the future. Recent 2011 studies on the status of soil pollution in Addis Ababa showed that the concentration of heavy metals, such as zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and lead (Pb), in the soil samples of the dumpsite and nearby open land were higher than the internationally acceptable limit for the soil. From this report, it was deduced that continuous application of all categories of solid waste on land resulted in degraded quality of the soil and stream water, accumulation of metals, and release of concentrated leachate to the environment, which further become a potential source of entry into food chain Physical land degradation Landslides, earth movement, and deep gullies are all major issues related to physical land degradation. The rugged topography, the slopping and rolling land forms, overgrazed grasslands and farmlands after harvest time, de-vegetation and cultivation on steep lands, and heavy rains have created conditions ripe for excessive soil erosion on cultivated fields. Moreover, flooding and sediment deposits in low-lying areas and riverbanks also have some degradation problems, due to heavy rainfalls and uncontrolled runoff from the highlands. 31 About 50% of the highland area is considered to be subjected to severe-to-moderate erosion. 32 This translates into 28% of the total land being severely degraded (mostly physical land degradation) which is a much higher figure compared to other countries (Exhibit 10). 20% of the land is very severely degraded, which means the biotic function is completely destroyed and the land is non-reclaimable, and the remaining 8% is severely degraded which is non-reclaimable at farm level. Different engagements, notably through the Productivity Safety Net Program (PSNP) and SLM, have tried to address physically degraded areas through physical measures, such as area closure, and through biological measures, such as tree planting. Therefore, leveraging these efforts for further scale-up and strengthening could lead to a significant recovery of these areas, which would make a huge contribution toward the fertility and health of Ethiopian soils and toward agricultural productivity in general. Exhibit 10: Extent of physical land degradation in Ethiopia 30 Assessment of the pollution status of the solid waste disposal site of Addis Ababa city with some selected trace elements, Ethiopia; World Applied Sciences Journal; Hunachew Beyene and Sandip Banerjee: World Soil Resources Report: Land Resource Potential and Constraints at Regional and Country Levels. FAO, Highland reclamation study, Ethiopia. Vol. 1 and 2. FAO,

39 2.3. Prioritization of Soil-level bottlenecks The different soil-level bottlenecks have differing magnitudes of negative impact to soil health and fertility, as assessed above. Moreover, the bottlenecks vary in their regional coverage. For instance, organic matter depletion is widely spread to most of the smallholder farms of Ethiopia. On the other hand, issues involving soil pollution are limited to industrial lands, which aren t commonly spread in Ethiopia. Therefore, by weighing the severity of the negative impact and the breadth of the area coverage, the following soil-level bottlenecks could be identified as priority bottlenecks to be addressed: Organic matter depletion, Soil erosion, Nutrient depletion, Soil fauna/flora depletion, Acidity, Physical land degradation, and Salinity (Exhibit 11). Exhibit: 11 Prioritization of soil-level bottlenecks 29

40 As mentioned in the previous section, the Ethiopian soil sector has made multiple efforts to deal with such bottlenecks in the soils. There have been interventions related to organic matter input application, acidic and saline soil amendment, vertisols management, agroforestry, and other soil management schemes. These have been implemented by various stakeholders, including the Ministry of Agriculture, Regional Bureaus of Agriculture, federal and regional research institutes, higher learning institutions, and other development partners. These efforts have yielded some improvements, however, despite all of the initiatives and the resources invested, the related bottlenecks haven t been fully resolved, with significant room still remaining for improvement. There may be multiple causes for this stagnant turnaround, including the vast coverage area exposed to multiple issues. One critical aspect of the hindrance is the existence of bottlenecks in the surrounding system itself. The systemic bottlenecks are related to the enabling environment for the effective execution of the interventions that deal with the soil-level bottlenecks, and also directly affect the institutional and organizational components that are the basis of the resources that actually carry out the interventions. Therefore, understanding these systemic issues is just as important as diagnosing the soil-level bottlenecks themselves Systemic bottlenecks It is important to note that the bottlenecks affecting Ethiopia s soil system exists not only at the soil level, but also in the surrounding regulatory system. There are five major components in the system that 30

41 contain systemic bottlenecks that hinder achievement of the vision. They are: soil information management; technology generation, dissemination and linkage; input value chain; strategic and regulatory framework; and organization and management systems (Exhibit 12). Exhibit 12: Systemic bottlenecks hindering soil heath and fertility knowledge 1. Soil information management Lack of up-to-date information on soil resource data and exchange system: It s fundamental to have comprehensive and updated soil resource information that is detailed enough to support geography-tailored agricultural recommendations. However, Ethiopia lacks a comprehensive, up-todate data and knowledge base of the soil status across the nation. The latest national-level soil mapping was done in the 1980s, by FAO through national soil surveying. There were also some macronutrient studies conducted by FAO, from the s, which are still used as a basis of various interventions. Given the fact that Ethiopia s soil fertility condition has gone through dynamic physical, chemical, and biological changes that directly or indirectly influence crop production and productivity, it s often misleading to base soil fertility inputs and management practice recommendations on this soil information data Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Potential in Ethiopia: Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system. IFPRI,

42 The understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristic of soils in different geographies is critical for soil fertility and productivity improvement, as the lack of nationwide soil information inhibits the recommendation of local specific inputs/practices for soil health and fertility. Also the lack of up-to-date soil resource data results in a lack of awareness of soil depletion and soil resource value to the community at large. This is exhibited by the fact that most agricultural practices focus on maximum production or yield increase, without regard for the soil nutrient depletion that occurs in the process. On multiple occasions, soil resource improvement efforts have been overlooked due to the absence of up-to-date soil resource data. In addition, although there are some fragments of soil resource data that have been constructed through different initiatives and programs, due to the absence of any sort of data exchange system, this data has been inaccessible to various users. No shared soil resource information database: It is not only the information itself that is lacking in the country, but also the institutions, mechanisms, management systems, and capacity needed to manage a database for sharing the vast amount of information generated. The research institutes, soil testing laboratories, higher learning institutions, and various development partners have conducted activities that generated valuable soil data across Ethiopia. However, the data is not compiled centrally, meaning it is not accessible among the various actors. This causes a significant waste of resources and effort in the sector. Therefore, generating a soil atlas that is capable of aggregating the generated soil data in the country is just as important as developing new sets of data. The database established should be developed in a way that allows the data to be easily shared among various stakeholders. It should also be capable of disseminating essential information to the end-users, including smallholder farmers. Without the right enabling environment, sustainable management of the data collection, assessment, and dissemination is at stake. Therefore, there needs to be a holistic approach to develop a regular mechanism of soil information data generation and management for Ethiopia; one that is tailored to support the right level of geographic categorization. 2. Technology generation, dissemination, and linkage Lack of soil test-based fertilizer recommendations: Until recently, there were only two fertilizers, urea and diammonium phosphate (DAP), readily available in Ethiopia. These fertilizers contain only nitrogen and phosphorus and have been applied based on nationwide recommendations (normally 100 kg/ha of each) for all crops and soil types, irrespective of the diverse agroecological characteristics of the country 34 (Exhibit 13). Even though this system is simple to communicate to farmers and reduces the need for increased labor during the application process, it doesn t take into consideration the agroecological variations and fertility gradients encountered within a given field. The main reason for the continuation of this blanket application rate is the lack of soil test-based fertilizer recommendations. Moreover, the use of a fertilizer package that focuses on nitrogen and phosphorus only serves to deplete other secondary and micronutrients from the soil. Investigations on the amount, type, method, and time of fertilizer application has been conducted by different institutions, including the MoA, EIAR, 34 Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Potential in Ethiopia: Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system. IFPRI,

43 RBOAs, RARIs, development partners, and higher learning institutions. However, there have been three underlying problems in these early trials, which are: 1) Limited soil testing to supports the result of the fertilizer trials 2) Use of experimental designs which were not suitable for the generation of soil analysis/crop yield response relationships 3) Limited central coordination of efforts; resulting in the lack of development of a national recommendation or implementation strategy A set of new trials, coordinated by the MoA with the support from the ATA, is underway to come up with improved recommendations, expanding beyond the conventional DAP and urea to a set of existing fertilizer products (e.g., USG, YaraMila Cereal). However, nationally coordinated calibration studies are critical, along with a longer-term fertilizer trial strategy that could lead to a more robust national recommendation of fertilizer formulas and rates application, based on soil testing. Exhibit 13: Fertilizer consumption by product and nutrient type Lack of soil fertility and health management technology registry and release mechanism: Although some soil research output has been obtained and delivered to the user communities, a soil technology registry for validation of the effectiveness of the technologies and their release has never been conducted. There are also no accompanying guidelines as to when, how, and where the 33

44 technology can best be used as a method of releasing technologies. This is becoming particularly apparent with the advent of new technologies coming from private stakeholders in the areas of biofertilizers and farm implements. The absence of this system has resulted in the following problems: o o o Loss of farmer confidence: In the absence of such mechanism to check the quality of different technologies in different agroecologies and within the applicable domain for a specific technology, the final output or gain may not be optimal for smallholder farmers. This would likely create a lack of farmer confidence in technologies that are intended to improve farm-level productivity. Duplication of effort: Technologies that have failed in some parts of the country might be rolled out as a new technology in other parts, due to the absence of information on the result of earlier rollouts. On the other hand, technologies that have proven to strengthen soil fertility and health are not well-communicated to other similar areas. This results in additional time and resource being spent to understand technologies that have already been tested. Reluctance by researchers: Researchers aggressively contribute to the development of the sector and the research community at large when there is a system that acknowledges their efforts. However, the absence of such a system can discourage researchers, by allowing for forgery and creating other complications. Low emphasis on soil fertility focused extension system: The current field-level extension service in Ethiopia has a strong foundation of FTCs, with 62,764 trained DAs and 45,812 staff in reported locations. Each Kebele should have at least one FTC, staffed by three DAs, supported by an itinerant DA covering three FTCs. Each FTC should also have one specialist each in the areas of livestock, crops, and natural resource management. However, the current extension system does not have all these experts in place. Particularly when it comes to soil experts, it is difficult to find an adequate number in the extension system, from the district to the federal level. Nevertheless, in the Regional Bureaus of Agriculture and the MoA s extension structure at the federal level, there are crop and livestock extension wings. However, the natural resource management wing, which should be the department responsible for guiding natural resource and soil health and fertility management practices, is absent or not significant in size. Also, other units or departments often carry out soil fertility work on behalf of the real experts, causing ongoing problems. At the federal MoA level, a soil fertility case team was established just a year ago for the first time, when the problems became compelling enough. At the regional level there is no such team, as the emphasis there has been to only monitor the fertilizer import and distribution. For these reasons, the country's agricultural soils have remained neglected entities. One current example helps to highlight this assessment: The problem of soil acidity in the country's has been well known for the past three decades, if not longer. During that time, research confirmed that soil acidity could be tackled by using lime on the soils. At the same time, more than two and half decades ago, an independent study conducted by German experts revealed that about 40% of the country's agricultural soils were acidic and in need of attention. Unfortunately, efforts were only initiated in 2006 to tackle the problem, through a push made by the executive actors in the government. 34

45 Limited research emphasis on soil health and fertility: Despite the fact that soil health and fertility is one of the most significant contributing elements to agricultural productivity, the amount of relevant research undertaken on the subject is significantly less than that undertaken in other areas of agriculture. One reason for this could be the allocation of human resources. Within EIAR, when it comes to the number of researchers, the gap is significant. Within EIAR, in 2011/12, crop, livestock, and forestry research was staffed by 709, 313 and 160 researchers respectively. Meanwhile, soil and water together had only 142 researchers in total, being far outnumbered by other agricultural sectors. For the existing experts, the lack of proper training mechanisms is also a significant bottleneck. Currently, the experts are exposed to ad hoc, on-the-job training at their respective stations, along with limited standardized training before their deployment. Regular follow-up trainings, after being stationed, are also extremely scarce. These limitations on soil research lead to limited generation of technology and practices that are fundamental to improving the soil health and fertility conditions in Ethiopia. In addition, the facilities across the different research centers and laboratories are also insufficient, in terms of both variety and quality. The deficiency in the soil testing laboratories has already been covered above, and the other research facilities are not that different. This problem comes from a lack of established facilities standards, and also the limitation of financial resources allocated for this need. Limited lab capabilities and capacity: Soil testing labs are essential for successful research and extension service provision. They will also play an important role when the currently lacking soil information management system is improved and put in place. However, the existing soil labs do not include the ideal conditions, in terms of their infrastructure, human capability, and management systems. In Ethiopia, there are 17 regional soil testing labs, and one national soil testing laboratory which acts as a coordinator. In addition, there are 8 other labs housed in research centers. Based on different assessment reports, these labs lack the required infrastructure, human capability, and management systems to provide state-of-the-art soil laboratory services and up-to-date recommendations. 35 Infrastructure: All laboratories have severe problems in running the available instruments and obtaining required infrastructural facilities. Hence, the current analytical services provided by the labs are insufficient to handle the large demand for soil analysis. This is true both in terms of providing the data on time and making analysis of the different parameters, such as the analysis of sulfur. Though the situation is being improved, adequate chemical supplies are not available in many of the regional soil testing labs (RSTLs). The labs lack basic equipment, such as acid storage cabinets, and many of the available instruments are old and do not generate reliable results. Furthermore, the infrastructure gets damaged frequently due to poor maintenance, mishandling, and mismanagement, all of which becomes a major problem in the absence of spare parts supply and maintenance technicians. Furthermore, the issue of staff capacity to handle equipment, and qualified maintenance and repair personnel causes critical service provision problems for the STLs. Human capital: The RSTLs and NSTC have a diverse mix of available manpower, in terms of quality, quantity, and composition. However, it is not an exaggeration to state that the available 35 Mohammed Assen, Assessment of the performance of national and regional soil testing laboratories/in AGP woreda/, lime production, distribution and methods of lime requirement determination for acid soils of Ethiopia. AGP,

46 manpower in all aspects is not sufficient. RSTLs are greatly deficient in terms of the required level of manpower availability, while a better level of manpower was observed to be available in the NSTC. There are multiple underlying causes of the problem, which include the lack of enough training and retention mechanisms. Currently, there is not a single national level soil technician training facility in Ethiopia. Moreover, even when some technicians are trained in different institutions (e.g., EIAR), most of them leave the sector to seek better compensation and working environments. Management system: According to the Performance Status Report of Soil Testing Labs in Ethiopia, 36 different RSTLs are under different organizational structures and management systems. Some of them are under regional research institutes, while some are under Regional Bureaus of Agriculture (RBoAs). This gap in the management and administrative system has caused problems, especially in procurement where RSTLs under RBoAs go through a long period of delivery and quality assurance. In addition to the operational challenges, compensation differences across laboratories is negatively impacting the motivation and commitment of the laboratory personnel. Staff at the research and agricultural bureaus with the same qualifications and similar responsibility often receive different levels of compensation. Exhibit 14: Total number of farmers coverage per STLs and annual soil sample analyzed 36 Performance evaluation of soil testing laboratories in Ethiopia, EATA,

47 Exhibit 14 shows that the primary mandate of the soil testing laboratories is to do soil testing and analysis for fertilizer recommendations, and other soil assessment services for the community at large, primarily for smallholder farmers. The STL activities include: doing soil sampling and collection, soil testing and analysis, and calibration work for fertilizer recommendations. Thus, each STL is ideally expected to carry out these activities for farmers in its particular area. However the current soil sampling and analysis capacity, as can be seen from Exhibit 14, reveals that there needs to be a fundamental capacity building intervention in order to help these institutes execute their mandates as they should. This work can vary from building capacity at the existing laboratories in order to overcome their bottlenecks, to actually building additional laboratories in areas with high agricultural productivity and less soil testing capacity. Inadequate use of irrigation related to soils, and inappropriate research management in this area: With the development of irrigation particularly large-scale irrigation salinity and sodicity became factors of concern. Hence, the development and maintenance of successful irrigation practices must involve not only the simple supplying of water to the land, but also the control of soil degradation (i.e., salinity and sodicity). The quality of water, the irrigation practices, and the drainage system used, heavily affect the control of land degradation. Another concern is the issue related to irrigation development research activities. Recent irrigation development research often overlooks the negative impact that certain kinds of irrigation schemes have on the soil health and fertility. Both small- and large-scale irrigation development research endeavors often neglect the water resource quality aspect. Once again, this is due to the fact that the system lacks the needed capacity to focus on this prominent issue. Limited coordination between research, extension, and academia: The weak connection between research and extension has historically been a problem in Ethiopian agriculture. The establishment of Farmer Training Centres (FTCs) is a good step forward to better connect the research and extension systems, but there are still unsolved fundamental issues. The two core reasons for the problem are the gap in the management structure and the relatively weaker capacity of the extension system. Currently, research is conducted by the RARIs, which are separate organizations, although under the supervision of the RBoAs. By contrast, the extension system is managed directly by the Bureaus of Agriculture. However, research and extension are functions that require close collaboration, and in many cases, various researchers also spend a considerable amount of time working in extension themselves. Although the Research-Extension Liaison Committees (RELCs) were formed in 1986, both at the national and zonal levels, the available evidence shows that both the national and zonal level RELCs had limited impact and did not last long enough to be of practical use. This was due to the following reasons, among others: o Some of the newly created agricultural development zones had no research centres and lacked the capacity to steer the extension role through staff development, support, and reward o Local government officials had poor technical know-how and skills in monitoring and evaluating research and extension activities o Serious funding constraints to undertaking linkage activities o Absence of decision making power of RELCs or clear working guidelines 37

48 o o o o Ad-hoc and non-institutionalized nature of meetings Lack of representation of farmers (even though it was clearly stated in the official documents that farmers must be represented in RELCs) Frequent changes in the organizational structure of the Ministry of Agriculture, and the resulting repeated reshuffling of RELCs members Shortage of relevant technologies that were proven to provide directly measurable results or perceived benefits The establishment of Research-Extension Farmer Advisory Councils (REFACs) at three levels: the federal, regional, and zonal level (research center based) followed in the late 90s, but this effort is also perceived as not having resulted in significant improvements. 37 The weak capacity of the extension system also hindered this effort as well. Most of the time, required specialists for respective areas were not in place within the extension system, and the relatively low compensation of personnel in the extension system was also an issue. In 2008, an Agricultural and Rural Development Partners Linkage Advisory Council (ARDPLAC) was established at the federal, regional, zonal, and district levels. However due to a lack of consistent resource availability and issues of accountability, the government of Ethiopia (under an AGP program) is now trying to address these issues. In addition, research and extension are not the only parties that need stronger coordination. The higher learning institutes should also be actively engaged into the chain, supporting both the research and the extension aspects. When properly leveraged, academia may offer a strong supplement to help fill the current gaps within the research and extension systems. 3. Input value chain Limited accessibility/affordability to inputs (e.g., fertilizer, soil amendments, and inoculants): When considering agricultural inputs, including fertilizers, soil amendments, bio-fertilizer and equipment, there is room for significant improvement in the value chain, especially around the accessibility and affordability to the inputs. Among the inputs, inorganic fertilizers and soil amendments are the two major inputs, in terms of the significance of their impact to Ethiopian agriculture. Also, the production and or distribution of bio-fertilizer (specifically for pulse crops) is in its infant stage. Having only one institution acting as the sole producer and distributor of this input in the country has resulted in the bottlenecks related to increasing accessibility on a wider scale. Improving crop productivity and soil fertility based on balanced soil macro/micronutrient composition necessitates the need for the production and importation of the correct forms and quantities of adequate inorganic fertilizers. However in Ethiopia, issues in the fertilizer value chain (e.g., weak distribution/handling system, capital provision, demand projection) are limiting the accessibility and the affordability of fertilizers for farmers. Accessibility: Domestic distribution is a significant component of the fertilizer value chain issue, especially around the last-mile distribution. While the reach of road networks and cooperatives in most high-production areas has improved significantly in recent years, access to very remote areas is limited; and fertilizer is not available on time, or it is simply unavailable in these hard-to- 37 Belay Kassa. Agricultural research and extension linkages in Ethiopia: a historical survey 38

49 reach areas. 38 One major reason is the very small number and poor quality of feeder roads, which play a significant role in the timely supply of fertilizers to consuming centers. Moreover, the domestic transportation system capacity is limited, making it difficult to deliver fertilizer before planting time ends. 39 And fertilizer storage capacity also requires strong interventions in order to facilitate distribution. The dissemination of rhizobium as a bio-fertilizer is also at its infant stage. Only one strain of rhizobium, developed by the National Soil Testing Laboratory (NSTC), is being produced and distributed at scale. EIAR has developed two additional strains with demonstrated potential to increase chickpea yield by over 30% (in combination with phosphorus application); however, there is no mechanism in place to release these strains at a national level, and the NSTC does not have access to strains for dissemination at scale. Similarly, in the private sector, there is no linkage between EIAR and registered private enterprises to promote dissemination of newly released strains. Strain management and handling at the woreda and FTC levels suffer from lack of facilities, such as refrigeration, and limited knowledge of best practices. This potentially leads to reduced effectiveness due to the death of strains prior to application. In addition, private producers are challenged by high distribution costs, which contribute to uncompetitive prices compared with rhizobium disseminated through NTSC and RSTLs. Affordability: Fertilizer uptake and application is linked to a sustainable system that provides credit access, however this is currently extremely limited. Accordingly, fertilizer credit availability is a constraint to advancing fertilizer use. For smallholders, on average, the economics of fertilizer use are attractive, but the risk of negative cash flow is high; therefore large farmers with significant commercialization can afford to bear this risk, but smallholders cannot. 40 Soil acidity, explained by low optimal ph (5.5 and below) and alkalinity of higher ph than optimal (7.5 and above) affect levels of nutrients by reducing the solubility needed for growth. This is due to an excessive accumulation of certain ions and salts. One of the precautionary strategies considered by the MoA to manage acidic soils is to adjust irrigation water use through the application of soil amendments. To accomplish this, adequate soil amendment production and on time delivery to farmers is necessary. Until recently, there have been only four lime crushers engaged in the production of lime. However, the capacity of the crushers to meet the required amount is by far below the required level. Given an annual demand of 1,919,619 quintals, the capacity of these crushers is limited to only 98,280 quintals annually. To meet this demand with the available lime crushers, some improvement in the production and distribution strategies is needed. The existing distribution of lime is handled by the respective Regional Bureaus of Agriculture. The lime is directly transported to the woreda from the crushers for the farmers to receive and carry to their villages/farms via pack animals or other available means. Considering the availability and efficiency of transport systems in the country, this could be an acceptable method to deliver the lime to the farmers; however the distribution system is still inefficient. Another problem is that, due 38 Fertilizer and Soil fertility Potential in Ethiopia: Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system. IFPRI, Fertilizer Market in Ethiopia. IFPRI, Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Potential in Ethiopia: Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system. IFPRI,

50 to price build-up from the production site to the farmers site, mainly price of transportation, the farm gate price is higher to the farmers. In addition to that, due to delayed soil test analysis by soil laboratories, the distributed lime will remain unused by farmers. When that occurs, the lime will turn into unusable form specially the powder limes resulting in resource wastage for farmers. Inefficiency in distribution and marketing of fertilizers: The current channel that distributes fertilizers to farmers, which is the cooperatives network, shows some inefficiency in distribution and marketing. This results in decreased accessibility of fertilizer inputs to farmers. A recent IFPRI study implies that pre-determined costs and margins for the actors at the consumer end of the fertilizer value chain do not appear to be competitive. As a result, the cost build-up assessment suggests that in order to improve the value chain, the administration costs and margins realized by the primary cooperatives need to be increased. 41 This economic bottleneck will further worsen the inefficiency of the fertilizer value chain, which could significantly impact the reach of fertilizer inputs to smallholder farmers. Other inefficiencies in the value chain: Apart from the issues stated above, there are other inefficiencies that exist in the input value chain, especially for fertilizers. One example is the gap between demand and consumption. The amount of fertilizer carryover is considerable, especially over the last three years, accounting for nearly 50% of the imported volume (Exhibit 15). This raises the need for a more accurate demand estimation mechanism, a more effective extension system in terms of fertilizer usage, better price controlling mechanisms, and other regulatory support, such as an increase in credit availability. In addition, there are issues with a lack of sufficient transportation infrastructure (e.g., trucks, rails, and roads), strategic location of central warehousing, and weak last mile distribution, etc. Exhibit 15: Amount of annual fertilizer import and carryover 41 Fertilizer in Ethiopia: Policies, Value Chain, and Profitability. IFPRI,

51 Limited financial support to farmers adoption of practices: When it comes to adoption of different soil health and fertility management practices from improved input provision to change of farming practices additional resources must be invested on the farmers end. Capital is the major resource that is constrained, along with other factors, such as labor. Various studies prove that multiple interventions related to soil management (e.g., application of fertilizer) result in a positive return on investment (ROI). However, the underlying bottlenecks are the difficulty in accessing the capital, and the limited risk aversion mechanism for farmers. Given the nature of agriculture s exposure to external risks, there is a high barrier for the farmer to make a larger upfront investment without methods for hedging (e.g., farming insurance). The issue of lack of input credit for fertilizer for smallholders is a relatively recent problem that was caused by channelling input credit through "regular" cooperatives. This led to unsustainably high levels of NPLs (non-performing loans) as these institutions struggled to adequately assess customer risk, and farmers perceived the granted credit as a government subsidy. As a consequence, while cooperatives still have access to fertilizer using government credit guarantees, fertilizer access for farmers is now primarily cash-based. This could turn into a major issue should the quality of harvests decrease. If smallholders do have access to credit, debt repayment schedules are often unaligned with agricultural production cycles. Since most loans have payback periods under one year, loans are 41

52 likely to either require instalments before the first harvest or to demand repayments in periods when further input credit is required Strategic and regulatory framework Limited quality control mechanism and regulatory system for inputs: The growing demand for agricultural inputs in the country, particularly for inorganic fertilizers, and the increasing number of business societies engaged in the sector necessitates setting up laws and appropriate quality control mechanisms. Though the government recognized the need for ensuring fertilizer quality and fair distribution, which led to the Fertilizer Trade and Manufacturing Proclamation No. 137/98 on November 24, 1998, the enforcement mechanism was not established at the district level. As a result, there are cases where underweight and low quality fertilizers (unwholesome in physical properties) are being distributed to farmers. In addition, the question of who should do the quality control at the grassroots level is still debatable. External factors, namely poor warehouse ventilation and ambient conditions, and poor product handling and storage, etc., are also prevalent. It is important to note that some countries, like India, have established a National Agency for Fertilizer Regulation and Control for the fertilizer market, together with the necessary instruments for its administration and enforcement. Lack of proper agricultural land use planning strategy and enforcement: Around the globe, productive arable land is encroached by competing land use, especially through urbanization and industrialization as the economies of countries develop and the industrial focus shifts more to manufacturing from agriculture. This leads to loss of fertile soils, which is also happening in Ethiopia. For example, the recent industrial development in Modjo has granted a vast area of highly productive agricultural land to build manufacturing facilities and related infrastructure. In the end, this negatively affects the overall soil fertility of the nation, by losing the fertile areas and migrating to inferior soil for agricultural production. Furthermore, in some areas, fertile agricultural land is being appropriated for non-agricultural activity, which results in inefficient use of land. Hence, the need for a thorough regional-level planning strategy enforcement mechanism that could better plan for the use of certain land areas, targeting optimal purpose and impact. Lack of capacity and mechanism for soil pollution control enforcement: Following the provision of the environment policy, the Ethiopian government introduced the Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation. This proclamation requires an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process for any planned development or public policy that is likely to have a negative impact on the environment. The proclamation envisages the issuance of specific directives and guidance that further specify the implementation process requiring the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) to identify categories of projects likely to have negative impact, and thus require an EIA. However a variety of key problems hinder the effective implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment proclamation, including: lack of awareness and widespread misconception about EIA by the general public, lack of human and resource capacity to implement EIA, lack of regulations and rules to support implementation, and a lack of coordination among sectorial and regional offices. In summary, lack of capacity and mechanisms for soil pollution control enforcement are the primary systemic bottlenecks hindering the implementation of holistic soil pollution control mechanisms Wolday Amaha, David Peck. Agricultural Finance Potential in Ethiopia, Overview of Environmental Impact Assessment in Ethiopia, Gaps and Challenges, Mellese Damtie and Mesfin Bayou,

53 5. Organization and management systems The need to focus on soils, as it provides fundamental input and support to agricultural production and productivity, necessitates special attention through different enabling mechanisms. Lack of focus on soil research and inefficient coordination across enabling factor drivers has led to less soil research activities and less prime soil technology service provision. The details of these drawbacks can be highlighted in the following three categories: Absence of a national entity to coordinate soil related data and activities: The rationale for the need to establish a national soil resource institute to coordinate various soil activities and data is reflected in the following four key points: alarming soil fertility decline, fragmented soil research activities, absence of all-inclusive data, and the need to sustain on-going soil fertility efforts. These rationales are discussed below in detail below: Alarming soil fertility decline: The agricultural soils of Ethiopia have been depleted by a multitude of factors, mainly erosion-induced nutrient loss, entire crop harvest removal resulting in crop nutrient decline, minimum application of organic inputs (such as farm yard manure), and very low use of chemical fertilizers by farmers. For these reasons, the soils have remained exposed to rapid soil fertility decline, exhibiting negative nutrient balance, and resulting in unbalanced nutrient status of agricultural soils, with grim nutrient and organic matter deficiencies. Recent soil fertility status assessment data reveals that soil analysis results from some high agricultural production areas show that significant portions of the areas soil fertility is in a critical stage. Macro- and micronutrients, such as potassium, boron and zinc, and soil organic matter, relevant to crop growth are critically low. Maintaining good amounts of organic matter is useful due to its positive role in soil aggregate formation, improving water holding capacity of the soils, and serving as the store for nutrients and microbial activities. In the absence of these benefits, it is no surprise that crop productivity has remained stagnant for a number of years. Scientists advise that chemical fertilizers, in the absence of well-maintained soil organic matter levels, play a limited role in increasing crop yield and productivity on a sustainable basis. Unfortunately, previous government efforts have been focused only on increasing fertilizer use (DAP and urea). Until recently, the use of organic resources as a means of providing nutrients and improving fertilizer use efficiency and the health of soil was given low emphasis. Recent attempts to scale-up compost use have been made, but the quality, application rate, and timing of their addition to soil has not been appropriate. Since compost is decomposed organic fertilizer source, it has a limited shelf life in the soil. It is believed that the level of organic matter in the soil is best increased through the following measures: the use of organic inputs, retention of crop residue, adoption of reduced tillage systems, and the establishment of live mulch. Studies of organic matter dynamics over time must be initiated as a means to develop soil conservation measures that reduce carbon loss from soils. Current efforts will not increase the soil organic matter to appreciable levels, mainly due to decades of continuous depletion. 43

54 Fragmented soil resource information activities: Soil resource information generation initiatives in Ethiopia have been fragmented and often redundant. Each activity tries to address issues separately, without implementing representative site selection across the country in a coordinated manner. One cannot address the specific problems of all locations and farming systems with a single effort, as each has different constraints embedded in the system. Instead, when the problems are similar across areas, soil fertility and resource information generation should be conducted on well-planned representative sites in a coordinated manner. This would allow the results to be easily extrapolated to other similar areas. Unfortunately, the common approach to date has been a practice where all soil information generation bodies particularly the STLs and academia on a departmental scale conducts soil fertility and information generation activity independently. Although all of these institutions conduct soil fertility and resource information generation, there is a duplication of activity, resulting in inefficiency of resource utilization and huge resource misallocation. Most of these studies are also specific needs-oriented efforts, but not part of an overall integrated plan. As a result, the prioritizing of all-inclusive national soil fertility and resource data generation endeavors has been overlooked. Absence of all-inclusive soil data: Because of the lack of center of excellence for soil research data in the country, the available information generated by various institutions (such as the soil fertility map of Oromia generated by the Oromia Agricultural Research Institute) is scattered among various institutions. There is no mechanism to assemble the different data into one center and use it for agricultural development work. The need to sustain on-going soil fertility efforts: Currently there are various soil fertility efforts underway by the government and development partners, including the EthioSIS soil fertility mapping exercise. The EthioSIS initiative focuses first on developing a soil fertility atlas, and then making the information available to help inform strategic soil and fertilizer decisions and recommendations. Given the importance of such initiatives, systematically maintaining the soil fertility information and developing a mechanism to regularly carry out such exercises was found to be critical. Further increasing the scope of such initiatives to include other soil fertility and health assessments at a national scale is also worth pursuing. Lack of coordination among soil research institutions: The Ethiopian agricultural research system has two key sectors. The first includes government-based research institutes that are subdivided under federal (EIAR, the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research), Regional Agricultural Institutes (RARIS), and universities, also know as higher learning institutions (HLIs). The second group includes other institutes that are engaged in agricultural research, which can be grouped under a consortium called the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Among all the above players, EIAR has a mandate to coordinate soil research across the nation, and also to conduct required interventions through its 14 research centers, based on the 1997 proclamation. However, structural issues hinder coordination efforts as the Regional Agricultural Research Institutes (RARIs) operate under different legal and administrative systems and are not well aligned with EIAR s coordination attempts. Currently, the collaborations between EIAR and the RARIs, and among RARIs themselves, are largely ad-hoc, not institutionalized, and depend heavily on 44

55 personal inclinations and initiatives. 44 There is also an on-going debate around whether EIAR should conduct implementations or not, beyond its coordination responsibility. This is an issue primarily related to the budgets (of which the RARIs are short) for each institution. Limited coordination among soil laboratories: The soil testing labs across the nation are administered by different organizational systems and lack centralized management to solve crosscutting issues. According to the Performance Status report of Soil Testing Labs in Ethiopia (EATA, 2012), the National Soil Testing Center, which operates under the Ministry of Agriculture, is mandated to provide technical support and coordinate the soil testing laboratories in the country. However, the current capacity and institutional limitations across the 17 regional labs are hindering NSTC to perform to the expected standard. Some of the reasons identified for this include: inadequate infrastructural services, difficulty in retaining experienced staff, no staff development plan in place, instruments have limited exposure to maintenance and spare parts, and reagents/consumables are in short supply. 45 In addition to the human resources and infrastructure problems, a lack of coherence in the management system poses a significant problem. Specifically, some regional labs are under the management of their respective RBoAs while others are under the management of the RARIs. The rationale behind this difference is that some regions prefer the labs to function within the research sector, while some believe that labs should work closer with extension, which is managed by the RBoAs. 3. Interventions for soil-level bottlenecks 3.1. Overview The key characteristic for the soil-level bottlenecks and the interventions identified are mostly crosslinked. This means that different interventions can be applied to solve a single bottleneck, and that one intervention has impact towards solving multiple bottlenecks. This cross-linked relationship helps to stress the importance of understanding soils as a system, highlighting the fact that the physical, chemical, and biological conditions of soil health, along with soil fertility, are closely connected, with each factor affecting one another. Nine interventions have been identified that can address the soil-level bottlenecks, based on their importance and potential impact (Exhibit 16). These interventions are either existing and need to be strengthened, or they are new to the system. The interventions are grouped under one soil fertility and health management framework. The framework helps to encompass and underscore soil fertility and health interventions that can address soil fertility constraints. 44 Belay Kassa. Agricultural research and extension linkages in Ethiopia: a historical survey 45 Mohammed Assen, Assessment of the performance of national and regional soil testing laboratories/in AGP woreda/, lime production, distribution and methods of lime requirement determination for acid soils of Ethiopia. AGP,

56 Exhibit 16: Soil level bottlenecks and interventions Under this framework, identified interventions may be implemented using an integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) approach. ISFM can be defined as a holistic approach to soil fertility research and management practices that embraces the full range of driving factors and consequences of soil degradation, including biological, physical, chemical, social, cultural, economic, and political. 46 This approach would help to integrate soil interventions for holistic soil-level problem mitigation, ensuring the efficiency of each and every independent intervention. An integrated and tailored soil fertility management approach would help to improve soil fertility and health as well as agricultural productivity. Most of the interventions discussed below are not new to the system, although some are relatively new in terms of their sub-components, some are operational but require scaling-up, some need popularization at a national level, and others need to be strengthened to be implemented in other areas in order to provide holistic soil fertility and health management. 46 Integrated Soil Fertility Management in the Tropics: TSBF-CIAT s achievements and reflections

57 In parallel to that, the development of integrated soil fertility management through a tailored intervention package is relatively new to the system, offering potentially higher gains in terms of soil fertility and increased productivity. 1. Organic Input: Two important means of improving the organic matter content of soils are the use of applied organic inputs and the retention of crop residue on farms. In many cropping systems in Ethiopia, few or no agricultural residue is returned to the soil leading to a decline in soil organic matter, lower crop yields, and less plant biomass. Application of farmer available organic resources, such as crop and animal residues, and the avoidance of burning these materials as energy sources help to sustain soil organic matter and thereby soil productivity. The adoption of fuel-efficient stoves is one supplementary way to approach the reduction of organic matter usage for fuel. And the application of technologies such as vermicomposting through the use of earthworm and vegetation can help to improve soil organic content. These practices not only provide organic matter and nutrients to the crop but also improve the efficiency of applied chemical fertilizers, which is considered to be a major problem in the country. Currently, the use of organic inputs are being implemented with inorganic fertilizer in few agricultural practices. As can be seen from Exhibit 16, organic input helps to address multiple soil-level bottlenecks with varying magnitudes of direct impact. Compost usage is popular across Ethiopia due the relentless work of the MoA and RBoAs. However, due to a lack of standardized compost preparation guidelines in terms of type and quantity of compost, the efforts have resulted in different compost preparation methods with different soil fertility and agricultural productivity output. Therefore, standardizing compost preparation and application techniques to reflect different soil organic matter constraints is recommended. At the same time, implementing new compost technologies to supplement other interventions through an integrated approach would help to address soil fertility constraints; simultaneously improving productivity. 2. Inorganic input: The nutrient status of soils can be improved by adding both natural fertilizers (i.e., manure, compost) and chemical fertilizers. However, the content of nutrients in organic fertilizers is rather low, and only 2 to 3% of the organic matter present in the soil is converted to available nutritional form each year to meet the needs of growing crops. As shown in Exhibit 16, inorganic input application can help to address organic matter depletion, soil fauna depletion, soil erosion, nutrient depletion, physical land degradation, and other soil fertility problems at different levels of magnitude. Therefore, the addition of chemical fertilizers (except in soil containing high levels of organic matter) is usually needed to maximize plant uptake and crop yield. What is most essential is the use of chemical analysis on soil samples as a basis for recommending the type and amount of fertilizers to be used. Also, the balanced use of nutrients is critical. However, presently in Ethiopia, only urea and DAP are supplied to crops to provide nitrogen and phosphorous. Other essential elements, such as K, S, Zn, Cu and B, are generally not applied at all. Priority must therefore be given to improve the nutrient status of the 47

58 currently cultivated soils by adding appropriate fertilizers containing single as well as multiple nutrients. Historically, there has been a vast amount of soil testing conducted for different purposes by EIAR, STLs, and RARIs. Leveraging these results, a preliminary form of improved fertilizer formula recommendations that are tailored to the soil status could be developed. In addition, the soil fertility assessment projects currently underway will provide further detailed assessment of the soils across Ethiopia, which shall later be merged with the fertilizer formula recommendation efforts. In addition, a national-level fertilizer trial that tests existing alternative fertilizer products against the conventional DAP and urea application is being carried out. These multiple efforts should bring significant improvement to the fertilizer usage in the nation. However, further trials with more robust assessment and a wider variety of formula developments should be planned and implemented, in order to fine-tune the recommendation strategy. At the same time, the blended fertilizer initiative that aims to test blended fertilizers and also build local capacity to produce them should have a significant impact on the fertilizer recommendation practice, and hence on crop productivity. An ISFM effort, which helps to bring integrated inorganic input usage together with other interventions through a tailored and needs-based approach, should also surely improve soil fertility and agricultural productivity. In this strategy therefore, strengthening the soil-test based recommendation efforts, promoting new fertilizer use through by scaling-up different initiatives (such as fertilizer trials), and promoting the use of appropriate fertilizers with other soil fertility management packages should be exceedingly beneficial. 3. Bio-fertilizer: Fertilizer consumption in Ethiopia is very low, as farmers are not using the required quantities of chemical fertilizer, due to cost and availability issues. As a result, crop production and productivity remain stagnant and low. In the existence of these shortfalls, bio fertilizer can serve as a cheaper source of plant nutrients that fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere, either through nodulation in plant roots of leguminous crops or by dissolving unavailable soil nutrients, such as P and K. As can be seen from Exhibit 16, this intervention helps to address soil organic matter, soil fauna, and nutrient depletions with varying degrees of impact. Currently, the NSTC is the only public institution producing and distributing rhizobium on a large scale (although limited efforts are being made by other laboratories). The main bottleneck in this area is strain development. This is because rhizobium is very limited in terms of meeting the required demand in the country and very specific to pulse crops only. In addition, development of other inoculants are still in the infant stage, hindering productivity gain that can be made by other crops. Therefore, it is necessary to develop regional as well as national capacity to produce the required amounts of inoculant. Additionally, researching alternative inoculants, both by federal and regional research institutes, can help to bring vital advances in the use of bio-fertilizer inoculants. In summary, supporting the efforts made by the Amhara Region to establish a bio-fertilizer production facility, and leveraging this work to other regions, should help to improve soil fertility and crop production in the country. At the same time, efforts should be made to accelerate 48

59 capacity building of new strain development. And a tailored and integrated approach to implementing other complimentary interventions would amplify the benefits of bio-fertilizer application. 4. Conservation agriculture: Also known as conservation tillage or reduced/zero tillage, this refers to the practice where soil manipulation is reduced to a minimum. Conservation agriculture preserves soil structure, increases soil moisture availability, and reduces runoff and erosion. Adoption of reduced tillage systems also help increase organic matter content and nutrient supply. Conventional tillage most often destroys the structure of the soils and induces compaction. This has negative effects on soil aeration, root development, and water infiltration, among other factors. Longer-term impact of conventional tillage is the destruction of soil fauna through disturbance and the turning over of soil, which is then exposed to drastic atmospheric and climatic conditions. Kenya and Ghana provide some meaningful case examples on reduced or minimized tillage adoption (Box 3). In addition, there have also been some reduced tillage practices employed in Ethiopia. In 1999 and 2000, Sasakawa Global 2000 tested reduced tillage demonstration plots on farmers fields, using herbicides to control weeds. Those results showed that yields were higher under reduced tillage, as compared to conventional tillage methods. Average maize yield for the two years, based on 423 demonstration plots in the Oromia and Amhara Regions, was 620 kg/hectare higher with reduced tillage vs. conventional. In addition, the labor demand per hectare was 78 days lower under reduced tillage because of savings on plowing and weeding. [Box 3] Tillage practices, country cases: Kenya and Ghana Kenya Practiced small-scale conservation tillage involving the use of ox-drawn ploughs, modified to rip the soil. Deep ripping (subsoiling) with the same implement was done when necessary to break a plough pan and reached depths of up to 30 cm This increased water infiltration and reduced runoff. In contrast to conventional tillage, the soil was not inverted, thus leaving crop residues on the surface. As a result, the soil was less exposed and not so vulnerable to the impact of splash and sheet erosion, and water loss through evaporation and runoff Yields from small-scale conservation tillage increased by more than 100% higher than with conventional ploughing; the t/ha ratio increased from 1.3 to 4.5 tonnes. In addition, there were savings in terms of energy used for cultivation. Ghana Practiced minimum tillage and direct planting by slashing the existing vegetation and allowing regrowth up to 30 cm height. The residue was left on the soil surface without burning. After 7 10 days, direct planting was carried out in rows through the mulch. Maize was the main crop planted under this system. This increased and maintained water stored in the soil, reduced soil erosion, contributed to improvement in soil fertility (after crop residues have decomposed in subsequent seasons) and efficiently controlled weeds by hindering their growth and preventing weeds from producing seeds. This practice resulted in a yield gain of %. Previous land preparation practices (i.e., slash and burn) only resulted in t/ha for maize whereas after minimum tillage and direct planting, the yield gain grew to 2.7 to 3 t/ha Source: Sustainable Land Management in Practice: Guidelines and Best practices in Africa: WOCAT, TERR AFRICA; 2011 Integrated Soil Fertility Management in Africa: Principle, Practices and Developmental process: TSBF-CIAT; 2009 Although these practices increase yields and provide higher returns on investments for farmers, they have their own drawbacks as well. These include issues related to operations, handling, and productivity, which can vary based on agroecology and farming practices. However, a 2005 report found that since farmers have to pay the labor cost for weeding and ox rental, the cash 49

60 expenditures at the time were estimated to be 235 birr/hectare higher under conventional tillage. 47 Given the aggregate positive gain of reduced tillage, conservation agriculture in general helps to address soil-level bottlenecks related to organic matter depletion, soil fauna, and soil erosion with a medium magnitude of direct impact. Therefore, scaling-up and leveraging the fragmented development trials by SG 2000, and promoting a collective soil fertility management approach through a tailored and integrated intervention package based on agroecological delineations and soil types, can significantly increase the benefits of conservation tillage. 5. Other soil health enrichment practices: Rotation of crops is one of the most popular means of improving the fertility of soils. In addition to its advantage of improving the fertility of soils, such practices also help to control diseases, pests, and weeds. And rotation improves soil fertility by preventing the continuous and extreme depletion of specific nutrients, as various crops have different requirements in the types and amounts of nutrients they use. Moreover, some crops particularly the legumes which are normally intercropped fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, and the residue can be utilized by the succeeding crops. However, the use of fertilizer and the market demand for specific crops have somewhat changed the previously established culture of crop rotation, which is negatively affecting soil fertility maintenance. In the warm humid areas, particularly on slopping lands, intercropping of plantation crops mainly coffee and chat with pulses, root crops, or cereals such as maize and sorghum, is a common traditional practice for farmers. Such practices are ideal, both for soil fertility maintenance and control of soil degradation through erosion. Intercropping and mixed cropping also increase vegetation coverage of soils and prevent them from direct exposure to sunshine and raindrop impact. In addition, the application of improved plowing practices using improved tools is another means of enriching soil health. This practice is used in areas where soil structural deterioration/ compaction is a serious bottleneck for crop productivity. The use of these tools helps achieve deep soil penetration, breaking compacted soil surfaces and exposing the lower soil surface for crop cultivation. Other soil health enrichment practices address all soil-level bottlenecks with different magnitudes of direct impact, with some also incorporating agroforestry and increased biomass coverage. One particular practice involves growing special species of trees, such as acacia, in the farming territories. This benefits the soil through increased organic matter and enhanced physical structure of the soils. As mentioned previously, the MoA and the RBoAs are scaling-up agroforestry practices with special acacia species, such as Acacia albida, Gliricidia, and Sesbama. In addition, increasing the coverage of biomass, which includes non-forestry (e.g., grass, shrubs), is required to provide supplement for livestock feed that should lead to enhanced usage of crop residue as a means of increasing soil organic matter. The intervention to increase such biomass is less costly compared to agroforestry, and easier for the farmer to implement. However, the challenges so far have included: securing enough land space near the farm to plant the biomass 47 Zero Tillage or Reduced Tillage: The Key to Intensification of crop-livestock system in Ethiopia: Jense.B.Aune, Rahel Asrat, Derejie Asefa Teklehaimanote and Balesh Tulema Bune,

61 (which would require support from the bureaus of each region), inadequate follow up and support from the extension agents, shortage of seed due to insufficient production and collection efforts of raw seed, and other budget related issues. All of these obstacles have hindered the effectiveness of this initiative. Therefore addressing these issues by investing in related interventions is extremely critical, as it can reduce soil fertility constraints while simultaneously addressing deforestation. Potential next steps, therefore, should include scaling-up and popularizing intercropping practices and soil structural deterioration/compaction management tools, and promoting integrated soil fertility management through informed and tailored recommendations of supplementary practices. With regards to agroforestry and increased biomass coverage, it is necessary to leverage the biological rehabilitation efforts undertaken by different government programs and projects, especially agroforestry efforts that help promote soil fertility and crop productivity. To this end, overcoming the current Acacia albida bottlenecks is essential, particularly capacitating RBoAs to increase seed collection and multiplication efforts, and promoting an integrated approach through tailored recommendations using agroforestry along with other practices. 6. Soil and water conservation practices: A massive land rehabilitation and conservation effort has been underway since the mid-1970s, implemented by the Ethiopian government and its partners. In Ethiopia, UN programs and funds (e.g., WFP, UNDP, UNEP) have partnered with the MoA and RBoAs for the past 35 years on soil and water conservation activities. One example is the WFP lead program which is still operating as MERET (Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transitions to More Sustainable Livelihoods). MERET was developed after more than two decades of similar work by the MoA and WFP focusing on food insecure woredas. Other major donors in soil and water conservation activities include USAID, NEPAD, World Bank, and GIZ. Although there were weaknesses observed in some of the implementations, there were also successful cases in some areas, particularly those regarding building community capacity, and empowering communities through participatory approaches, from planning to evaluation. The overall efforts have led, to an extent, to integrating various elements of watershed management and developing locally adaptive technologies governed by socio-economic and biophysical conditions of the area. Other soil and water conservation practices address soil-level bottlenecks related to physical land degradation (high magnitude of direct impact), low moisture availability (medium magnitude of direct impact), and waterlogging and soil erosion (minimal magnitude of direct impact). And in addition to development partners efforts, regional governments are also engaged in the scaling-up of community-based participatory watershed development activities. These programs are jointly funded by the GoE and multiple donors, to implement a full scale-up of watershed development efforts in more than 3 million hectares of degraded lands. Based on this combination of efforts, Ethiopia has become a model to other African countries. In addition to the interventions explained above, certain crop and location specific agronomic practices could also affect soil health and fertility. For example, row planting could result in minimized tillage compared to the existing seed broadcasting method, along with less nutrient mining due to decreased seed rate. Such practices have been identified and are being implemented by each value chain program, in respect to their objective of increasing productivity for each crop. These intervention that have been promoted and are being 51

62 popularized by the MoA and RBoAs need to be scaled-up to other areas, along with other complimentary practices through an ISFM approach. These practices have proven to be successful in representative areas. Leveraging and scaling them up across similar areas, along with the implementation of complimentary practices, should surely result in increased efficiency for the conservation intervention measures. 7. Soil amendment application: The physical condition of soil, such as structure availability of oxygen, can be improved by applying amendments (i.e., lime and gypsum). In acidic soils where the ph is low and have aluminum toxicity most soils with ph lower than 5 contain soluble aluminum and manganese lime application can significantly improve the situation by enhancing plant root penetration, which is difficult in aluminum-rich soils. Ethiopia has deposits of limestone that need to be developed on a large scale. However, there are a variety of problems, given that lime is recommended with a significantly high quantity: 1) High transportation cost, from production to farm gate; this is due to the distance between the location of the production site relative to the cooperatives, where last mile distribution is carried out 2) Untimely delivery of lime due to over extended soil analysis result from STLs 3) Unions fail to deliver on time On the other hand, farmers across the world rarely apply lime at the most profitable level, or even at all, when faced by high market prices. As a result, governments have found it socially profitable to heavily support lime applications. 48 A snapshot of Brazilian savannah land Cerrado is briefly discussed as a case example (Box 4). Soil amendment application not only focuses on amending acid soils but also the application of gypsum on saline soils, which can be instrumental in driving improvement. However the coverage area, compared to acid soil areas, is significantly low. Lime application for managing acid soils not only addresses soil acidity but it also contributes to organic matter replenishment, soil fauna regeneration, nutrient conservation, and soil compaction. [Box 4] Soil amendment application, country cases: Brazil-Cerrado area Cerrado is an area located in a remote corner of Bahia state in the north-eastern part of Brazil with primarily eucalyptus and pine cultivation; the land was used only for extensive cattle ranching on native pasture of low carrying capacity before the mid- 1960s; today however, this area accounts for 70% of the nation s farm output The area was predominately covered with acid soils with a ph value ranging from 5.0 to 5.9 emphasizing the need for adequate liming In the late 1990s, 14m-16m tonnes of lime were being spread on Brazilian fields each year, rising to 25m tonnes in 2003 and This amounts to roughly five tons of lime per hectare, sometimes more The application of lime was normally followed by no or minimum tillage, with an average rate of 3-5 t/ha of lime incorporated to 0-20 cm deep into the soil by disk ploughing or tandem-disk harrowing techniques Source: Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture Management and conservation of tropical acid soils for sustainable crop production: Soil and water management section, International Atomic Energy Agency: 2000 As covered earlier in this document, an extension program for acid soil reclamation was recently put in place, focusing on the application of lime on 2,708 hectares of land. However, the inefficient production of lime is holding back the full scale-up implementation plan. This needs to be addressed through a systemic intervention that provides increased capacity for lime production near the areas of need. In order to do this, the MoA is now processing the purchase 48 John W. Mello. Critical issues/questions for fertiliizer policy. JMA/AMDe/AGP,

63 of three high-capacity crushers to be installed in three regions, with hand-over planned to private agro-dealers on credit. And at the regional level, the Amhara Region is in the process of establishing an additional lime crushing plant to better manage soil acidity. As a strategic recommendation therefore, supporting the current efforts with financial and technical backing, implementation of the ongoing lime distribution and application, and using ISFM in conjunction with other soil fertility management practices (such as organic matter management and conservation agriculture) should help bring holistic soil fertility improvement and increased agricultural productivity. 8. Saline soil reclamation and management practices: As discussed above, in some parts of Ethiopia, improper management of irrigation has caused soil salinity/sodicity problems. In order to address this, salt-affected soils can be corrected through improved drainage, leaching, reduced evaporation, application of chemical treatments, or a combination of these methods. Improved drainage refers to using deep tillage to break up the soil surface as well as claypans and hardpans or other hard soils that restrict the downward flow of water. Leaching can be used to reduce the salts on soils by adding enough low-salt water (1,500-2,000 ppm total salt) to the soil surface to dissolve the salts and move them below root zone. Leaching works well on saline soils that have good structure and internal drainage. Reducing evaporation by applying residue or mulch to the soil can help lower evaporation rates hence salt accumulation. Chemical treatment, which is the application of calcium in a soluble form such as gypsum, before leaching helps to reduce the exchangeable sodium content. Finally, the application of a combination of these methods helps to manage saline/sodic soils. Saline soil reclamation and management helps to address soil salinity problems and also waterlogging that arises as a result. The government of Ethiopia already has experience managing saline soils in the Awash River basin areas. Strengthening such efforts and scaling them up to other salt prone areas is critical to help manage saline/sodic soils in the country. In general, reclamation of salt affected soils, halting future expansion, and proper management of soil and water resources requires an in-depth knowledge of the area, and the utilization of irrigation water in a judicious and efficient manner. Alongside such initiatives, implementing integrated and tailored soil fertility and health management practices in saline/sodic areas is also instrumental to address soil-level issues while increasing productivity. 9. Drainage of waterlogged soils: For soils with hydromorphic properties, like vertisols, waterlogging is a significant issue that defects the physical characteristic of the soils, creating an inferior environment for farming. In such soils, making a raised bed (camber beds) or broad-bed helps to drain the excess water effectively. The high groundwater level can be lowered by digging open drain ditches or by installing underground pipes. The depth needed for the drains depends on the permeability and drainability of the soils, the depth to which the ground water level must be lowered, and precipitation. Drainage addresses different soil-level bottlenecks with different levels of direct impact, as follows: issues related to waterlogging (high magnitude of direct impact), salinity issues (medium magnitude of direct impact), and soil erosion and nutrient depletion issues (minimal magnitude of direct impact). In this regard, the MoA and RBoAs have been popularizing and promoting the use of broad-bed maker (BBM) technology. This technology has undergone a sequence of improvement phases, as the technology has problems related with handling. 53

64 The first BBM model was difficult for farmers due to its heavy load. However the second generation (i.e., I-Bar) is 50% lighter than the original BBM. Although the current technology is more efficient and easier to handle than the previous version, there is still a possibility to improve the technology and make it more user friendly. Furthermore, due to the extended rainfall season in some areas, such as Debre Brehane and South Wello, the existing technology is not sufficient enough to fully address soil waterlogging. Thus, research endeavors need to develop improved technologies and agronomic practices tailored to addressee such bottlenecks. A strategic next step would be to support the improvement efforts through technical and financial backing, including the research and development of improved technologies. At the same time, promoting the current technology (i.e., I-Bar) along with other soil fertility practices, such as organic matter application, inorganic input, and conservation tillage can help to increase soil health and fertility and to promote increased agricultural productivity. 10. Polluted soils treatment: To address polluted soils, there are multiple treatment techniques that are employed to destroy, isolate and/or eliminate soil contamination. These interventions include thermal treatment, phytoremediation, soil vapor extraction, biosparging, electric resistance heating, and land farming. The thermal treatment method generally helps to destroy soil pollutants using heat to warm out or evaporate some chemicals. Phytoremediation is another treatment process, using plants to stabilize or [Box 5] Integrated Soil Fertility Management practices, country cases: Zimbabwe, Mali, and Cameroon Zimbabwe Practiced ISFM with conservation agriculture Tillage with organic and inorganic fertilization was practiced under ISFM practices which include: o Minimum tillage: use of small planting basins which enhance the capture of water from the first rains and allow efficient application of limited nutrient resources with limited labor input o Small dose of n-based fertilizer: precision application of small doses of nitrogen-based fertilizer (from organic and/or inorganic sources) to achieve higher nutrient efficiency o Seed and fertilizer: combination of improved fertility with improved seed for higher productivity o Residue: use of available residues to create a mulch cover that reduces evaporation los and weed growth Over four years these simple technologies have consistently increased average yields by 50 to 200%, depending on rainfall regime, soil types and fertility, and market access. More than 50,000 farm households applied the technology in Zimbabwe Mali Practiced fertility management with inorganic fertilization Seed priming with micro-fertilization was practiced under ISFM measures o Seed priming: consists of soaking seeds for 8 hours prior to sowing o Micro fertilization: application of small amounts of mineral fertilizer to the planting hole These practices resulted in a production increase of 34% to 52% of sorghum and 48 to 67% of pearl millet; the application has ALSO shown better valuecost ratio (VCR) due to reduced workload and less inputs needed Cameroon Practiced organic input with soil fertility management under ISFM Tithonia green manuring with mulching were the specific applications: o Tithonia diversifolia: a green leaf biomass which is very suitable as green manure; fresh green leaves and stems are cut, chopped and applied on the cropland before planting o Mulching: can be combined after planting, which is especially applicable to maize, beans, and cabbage cultivation These practices resulted in 55% yield increase in beans, from average yield of 370 kg/ha to 560 kg/ha Source: Sustainable Land Management in Practice: Guidelines and Best practices in Africa: WOCAT, TERR AFRICA; 2011 Integrated Soil Fertility Management in Africa: Principle, Practices and Developmental process: TSBF-CIAT;

65 destroy soil contamination. Soil vapor extraction is a third technique; this one uses a vacuum to emit a controlled flow of air through the soil. Biosparging is a technique that uses natural microorganisms, like yeast or fungi, to decompose hazardous soil substance. Electric resistance heating works by sending an electric current into soil through multiple electrodes. Finally, the land farming technique is a treatment method where polluted soil is excavated, combined with a bulking agent and nutrients, and then returned to the earth. These treatments, depending on the level of soil pollution and capacity of implementation body, can be used to treat polluted soils at varying levels. Overall, the above set of interventions require the identification of adoptable organic matter management practices, recommendation of soil test-based fertilizers, and proper adoption of improved crop varieties, all of which need to be tailored to the respective agroecology and farming systems. Based on previous soil improvement efforts carried out by the MoA and RBoAs, diagnosing geographic and agroecology specific soil constraint, and designing a tailored ISFM package building on previous activities is critical to ensure holistic and all-inclusive soil fertility improvements. There are some other ISFM case examples from other countries worth exploring, which could provide practical tips for Ethiopian adoption of ISFM (Box 5). These interventions should also work closely with the seed sector to gain technical support on identification and implementation of improved varieties along with organic and inorganic input usage. Integrated soil fertility management practices address the soil-level bottlenecks related to organic matter depletion, soil fauna depletion, soil erosion, and nutrient depletion with a high magnitude of direct impact. They also address soil compaction with a medium magnitude of impact, and physical land degradation, low moisture availability, and waterlogging with minimal direct impact. Ethiopia s integrated soil fertility management efforts should be tailored to address the specific soil fertility and productivity problems on the ground. 55

66 3.2. Geographical categorization The selection and the implementation of the interventions above will vary by different parts of the country, as the agroecological characteristics, soil attributes, and other farming conditions are not uniform across the nation. Therefore, the sector strategy should be tailored to respective areas of different agroecological zoning, to consider the varying needs of soil health and fertility for the residing systems. The existing agroecological zoning considers the length of crop growing periods, in terms of moisture availability, and the three generalized thermal zone classes which were superimposed to identify the major agroecological zones 49 (Exhibit 17). The major agroecological zones were further subdivided using the seven physiographic regions delineated for this purpose. However, additional criteria should be added to the categorization in order to enable tailored recommendations for different agricultural systems. Two other major factors for consideration are soil type and farming system. Soil type: As explained in Box 1 (Key characteristics of major soil types in Ethiopia), there are various types of soils in Ethiopia; about eight major types plus additional minor types, each with different characteristics. The major attributes that matter most include physical structure and chemical characteristics, such as acidity and salinity. The set of interventions that should be applied is largely influenced by these attributes. Therefore, it is important to consider the distribution of different soil types in the country when conducting a geographical categorization. Exhibit 17: Agroecological zones of Ethiopia 49 Natural Resource Management and Regulatory Department (NRMRD). MoA,

67 Farming system: At a broad level, 7 major farming systems were identified by FAO in 2011, which are: highland tropical (perennial), highland temperate, highland cold, dry land, pastoral/agropastoral, irrigation farming, and forest and woodland farming. 50 The different farming systems have unique characteristics, as described below: - Highland tropical (perennial) system: Found in humid and sub-humid agroecological zones where land use is intense and holdings are very small. Located in areas with an annual rainfall of ~2,000 mm. Production is focused on coffee, ensete, fruits, banana, cereals, root crops, and spices, complimented by animal husbandry. The erratic nature of rainfall and the length of the intervening dry season vary greatly across areas within the farming system. Areas in the south and western highlands, Sidamo, Gamo Gofa, Kafa, Illubabor and West Wellega, are found under this farming system. - Highland temperate system: Found in the highland complexes comprising mountain chains and plateaus in the altitude of 2,000-3,000 meters above sea level; covering 13,221,870 hectares of land, this accounts for ~12% of the total land in Ethiopia. Most of the areas are categorized under the so-called wet dega agroecological zone, receiving annual average rainfall of over 1,400 mm. Many years of agricultural activities combined with increasing livestock and human populations have resulted in massive destruction of diversity, flora and 50 Farming system report: Synthesis of the country reports at the level of the Nile basin. FAO,

68 fauna coverage, and degradation of soils. At these higher elevations, soils are extremely shallow due to a high level of erosion and slow rates of organic matter decomposition. Traditional rain-fed subsistence farming is practiced with the average landholding shrinking due to population pressure; valley bottoms used for grazing are heavily cultivated for the same reason. Tef, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, broad beans, field peas, chickpeas, vetch, and oil crops are the main crops grown. Soil fertility has been maintained through traditional crop rotation, in rare cases, with fallowing and limited use of commercial fertilizer. Areas in the north-central and southeastern highlands, such as Gojjam, South Gonder, South Wello, East Wellega, and Arsi-Bale are under this farming system. - Highland cold: Found at very high elevations (over 3,000 m above sea level) with a precipitation range of 686 to 1,135 mm per year, in the sub Afro-alpine agroecological zone. The area covers 3.5 million hectares accounting for ~3% of the total land in Ethiopia, with a population of 4.5 million. The climate is cold with frequent night frosts during the dryseason. The soils are thin and often waterlogged when flat and are not suitable for extensive crop cultivation. Cold temperature at a very high altitude, together with humidity, limits the range of crop productivity and livestock type adapted to such a harsh environment. This system features two components: one or two crops of barley are produced per year, while highland sheep and goats dominate livestock production. Many of the features of this farming system are similar to that of the highland temperate system; however, the very high altitude and low temperatures narrow the crop and livestock spectrum, limiting crop yields. This farming system is found in the Bale mountainous areas in the Oromia Region and in the Gondor mountainous areas in the Amhara Region. - Dry land farming system: Found in rangeland ecosystems with sufficient soil moisture or groundwater to allow for settled farming. This system has many similarities with the agropastoral model; the main difference being the relative importance of the arable land and livestock components. In dry land farming, crops are more important than livestock. This system is rain-fed, based on mixed crops, and is practiced in altitude ranges of 500-1,500 meters above sea level. Sorghum production, mainly for local consumption, dominates, but crops such as pearl millet, finger millet, maize, cassava, groundnuts, sesame, and some vegetables are grown. Drought-tolerant varieties of tef, wheat, and other oil crops are grown in some areas. This area is found in North Gonder, Tigray, Northeast Shewa and East Hararghe, and the Rift Valley areas of Humera and Metema. - Pastoral/agro-pastoral system: Pastoral and agro-pastoral lowland areas with low and variable rainfall; can be categorized as the livestock zone of the dry land farming system. These farming systems are characterized by altitude below 1,500 meters above sea level, with average temperatures ranging from 25 degree to 35 degree centigrade daily, although in some areas it reaches up to 45, with a mean annual rainfall of ~350 mm with erratic and uneven distribution. The main agricultural activity is livestock production, which is highly dependent on climate, vegetation, and animal type. The agro-pastoral system has slightly more crop focus than the pastoral system, with its main crops being sorghum and maize, plus sesame and pulses which are often grown as cash crops. The areas under this farming system are mainly Afar in Somalia, Borena and Kereuye in Oromia, and South Omo in SNNP, with a few areas in Afar and the Somalia Region. 58

69 - Irrigation farming system: This system, as in the dry land system, includes two irrigation farming systems, which are: the small-scale irrigation farming system and the commercial irrigation farming system. The small-scale irrigation system is characterized by less capitalintensive irrigation management, relative to traditional community rules and water rights. This makes it an integral part of indigenous farming systems under traditional and modern small-scale irrigation systems. There is considerable variation in the types and mix of crops cultivated, cropping calendars, cropping intensities, water usage, and productivity, depending on the agroecologies and socioeconomic settings in which they operate. Commercial irrigation, on the other hand, is found mostly in the large-scale farms concentrated in the northwestern lowlands of the basin, where agricultural machinery and fertilizers are used to grow a range of crops, including flowers for export. This farming system predominantly focuses on the production of export crops, such as flowers and cotton and sometimes oil seeds. - Forest and woodland farming system: This system consists of forest and woodland farming systems under 2,892,682 hectares and 1,749,479 hectares of land respectively. Forest farming systems are found at 800 to 1,800 meters above sea level, covering lowlands to mid-altitude agroecological zones, with vegetation of forest woodlands and bamboo. Annual rainfalls range from 1,500 to 2,000 mm with a relatively short dry window from December to February. Soils under natural forest cover are inherently fertile, but this fertility declines under intensive cultivation, due to poor land management. This farming system is found in the Gambela Region and a few areas in the West Wellega area. The woodland farming system inhibits natural vegetation of tall trees and short vegetation with shrubs and relatively short grasses from between the trees. This system receives an annual rainfall ranging from mm. Gums, resins, and honey production are the main products, which act as the major sources of income. These systems are found in Afar and the South Omo and Borena areas in Oromia. The development of the geographical categorization which should be the overarching structure that guides the implementation of the identified interventions won t be a quick and easy process. Therefore, development of the geographical categorization, or soil management zonation, is designated as one of the key areas in the implementation framework described in section 5.1. EIAR and the RARIs are natural institutional owners of the effort, with support from the National Resource Management wing of the MoA and RBoAs. This would also require soil testing and mapping (which could be carried out through EthioSIS) and further verification of existing farming systems in the region Intervention package approach As stressed in IFPRI s soil fertility potential diagnostics document, 51 and many other pieces of research and publications, integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) is essential for maximizing the impact of soil management. The commonly referenced definition of ISFM is, the application of soil fertility management practices, and the knowledge to adapt these to local conditions, which maximize fertilizer and organic resource use efficiency and crop productivity. These practices necessarily include appropriate fertilizer and organic input management in combination with the utilization of improved 51 Mohammed Assen. Assessment of the performance of national and regional soil testing laboratories/in AGP woreda: lime production, distribution and methods of lime requirement determination for acid soils of Ethiopia. AGP,

70 germplasm in supplement with other tailored practices. 52 Therefore, an approach that combines all available and locally-relevant technologies and practices in a way that increases the agronomic efficiency of individual interventions is necessary. In other words, developing a package of interventions that suits the specific conditions of the zones identified in section 3.2 is at the core of this sector strategy. This should provide an opportunity to reverse the bottlenecks in the Ethiopian soils by addressing the physical, biological, and chemical health. As said, geographical categorization is an essential part of the intervention package approach, as it is impossible to come up with blanket intervention recommendations for Ethiopia as a whole, given the variety of agricultural systems. It is a widely accepted concept that soil fertility management is more effective when considering local knowledge and practices. 53 However, the implementation of the intervention packages faces some challenges, as this cannot be carried out by individual farmers with minimal support. It requires significant involvement of various stakeholders, from developing a national framework to rollout of the programs. Given the importance of localization, significant involvement from the Regional Bureaus of Agriculture and regional research centers is essential. The respective parties should identify the soil-level bottlenecks that are specific to each geographical categorization in their region, and design a set of ISFM packages to address the issues accordingly. Benchmarking a set of specific actions required for the implementation of ISFM solutions provided by other previous reports, below is a list of possible activities related to ISFM: 54 Develop a national intervention package development framework: Identify experts to form a national intervention package development taskforce, scope out what has been done in soil fertility and management problems, and develop appropriate technology options meeting farmers sitespecific needs; connect with international research organizations and initiatives in the development of innovative knowledge products and diagnostic tools to develop, evaluate, and disseminate management options in consultation with stakeholders Design projects and sequencing: Identify representative areas across Ethiopia and plan for sequenced rollout to demonstration plots in each area; define consistent experimental setup and data collection processes Manage and own on-going data collection and continuous improvement process: Take inputs from research centers and higher learning institutions, and ensure feedback of experimental results back into research and extension; create and use an iterative research process to use findings from each phase to adjust each subsequent phase and create a geo-spatial linkage to the database Identify set of interventions: Guide regional research centers to identify priority interventions and sequencing guidelines relevant to each kebele, and in parallel, introduce each intervention component in the Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training (ATVET) program and in-service training modules to ensure DAs have basic training in individual intervention s concepts and tools; prioritization of interventions, sequencing, and planning framework should be driven and coordinated through the intervention package development program and draw on national soil 52 Vanlauwe et al. (2009) 53 Amare et al. (2006); Singh and Pavan (2005); Pound and Ejigu (2005); Simeon (2008) 54 Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Potential in Ethiopia: Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system, July 2010, IFPRI 60

71 data; once interventions are identified, use trained DAs to take woreda- or kebele-level priority actions and tailor to individual farms selected as part of start-up/scale-up program. Oversee execution of experimental start-up program and rollout: Unlike IFPRI s suggestion of linking implementation to existing programs, the establishment of a direct management system from each RBoA could be more beneficial for the effective adoption of the strategy; of course, a certain level of linkage of collaboration should be considered and determined by the taskforce, but the direct responsibilities should reside with the administrative parties of the respective regions; when the set of interventions are identified, each responsible body should finalize the sequencing of the programs and develop the rollout plan to each woreda/keble Identify and distribute basic diagnostic tools as part of input packages in start-up programs: Commission short-term research projects to develop and/or identify existing cheap, simple, but robust diagnostic tools (e.g., leaf color charts used for rice in Asia), and select relevant products for Ethiopia s major agroecologies and farming systems, supported with GIS/remote sensing products; obtain funding if required and distribute with input packages; to ensure this approach achieves sustainable impact on a large scale it is imperative these tools are in place and widely available, otherwise the results will be limited to experimental plots with a limited number of farmers able to have intensive support from research and extension 4. Interventions for systemic bottlenecks 4.1. Overview Unlike the cross-linked soil-level bottlenecks and interventions, the systemic bottlenecks and their interventions mostly reflect a direct relationship, in which a single intervention addresses a single bottleneck. Below, are some of the major systemic interventions proposed for implementation in order to address systemic bottlenecks discussed above (Exhibit 18). Exhibit 18: List of systemic interventions 61

72 Soil information management Soil information is the basis of agricultural recommendations for the nation. Without the basic understanding of the status of soils, it would be extremely difficult to configure the right inputs and practices to be adopted for agricultural activities, if they are to be effective. Hence, establishing a mechanism for soil information management will be the foundation for most of the soil-level interventions explained above. Building regular mechanism of soil resource data generation: The Ethiopian Soil Information System (EthioSIS) project is being carried out to serve this purpose, beginning in EthioSIS aims to assess physical and chemical characteristics of the country s soils, including nutrient level information through soil mapping. This information will be available to the general public in digital form at granular levels. The data generation will include both remote-sensing and physical soil sampling across the country (Exhibit 19). The overall process and mechanism of soil information data generation will encompass the following steps: - Soil sample gathering: Gathers soil samples based on a gridded and non-gridded approach, i.e., at woreda level, and conducts various types of field analysis - Soil processing: Logs, dries, and grinds soil samples gathered, distributing to labs for spectral analysis/wet chemistry as appropriate 62

73 - Laboratory analysis: Conducts spectral and wet chemistry analyses to understand the physical characteristics and nutrient levels within the soil - Output generation: Translates the results from lab analysis to usable outputs; manages the National Soils Database - Standardization of soil sampling and analysis: Establish soil sample collection, processing, and laboratory analysis standards for specific parameters, which should be useful for uniform soil research and soil survey works EthioSIS is targeting to produce its first set of results by the first quarter of However, this generation of soil information data must not be a one-time initiative, but a regular effort. Exhibit 19: Soil resource mapping methodology and soil sampling technique Establish soil database, management and exchange system: The management of the data generated is the more difficult and critical side of the information management system. The database management requires the following three key components: - Soil library establishment: Archives soil samples collected during the gathering process of EthioSIS and all other data historically collected for other research purposes; also collecting and compiling legacy data from previous efforts, such as woody biomass and Ethiopian highlands project. 63

74 - Information sharing: Establishes a system where different organizations in the Ethiopian soil sector could easily upload and download the information to/from the atlas - Information distribution: Creates information distribution solutions, through internet and other customer/user interfaces Managing data in a centralized method is essential to enable an effective means of processing and distribution. The data should be stored and controlled with uniform formats and standards, most preferably by a single organization. In this particular case, the proposed institution (the National Soil Resource Institute) would be ideal to handle the execution of such efforts. The distribution of the information is more challenging than the storage of data. The priority should be to regularly synthesize and simplify major soil fertility issues and communicate these to extension and government to drive awareness. 55 This information should be translated into the local language and context, and disseminated through various channels, including different communication methods (e.g., mobile, audio broadcasting) and events (e.g., workshops). The Ethiopian Agricultural Portal (EAP) could be a potential resource to be leveraged. In this context, EthioSIS is also trying to establish a national digital data resource and data processing center at a national level that would operate as a separate division under the proposed National Soil Resource Institute. This should help in furnishing consistent soil data for researchers, policy makers, and the community in general Technology generation, dissemination, and linkage Research and extension are the two fundamental functions, in terms of implementing the interventions necessary for soil health and fertility. Specifically, the identification of adoptable practices for each region and dissemination of the technologies and practices identified are key. Although Ethiopia has a well-structured research and extension system throughout the country and respective regions, the system isn t functioning at an optimal level when it comes to soil related issues, as stated in describing the systemic bottlenecks above. Therefore, it is very important to strengthen the soil focus of the extension system in Ethiopia, along with an increasing the research focus on some critical soil-related issues. Strengthen the formulation and dissemination of soil test-based fertilizer recommendations: Strengthening fertilizer recommendations tailored to each geographical categorization is critical, given the current blanket application of DAP and urea across all of Ethiopia. For the last 40 years, 99% of the fertilizers in the fertilizer value chain have been limited to these two fertilizers, as the effort to understand the nutrient requirements in each soil was lacking. Therefore, developing a soil test crop response-based recommendation in the long term and trials of different fertilizer formulas in the short term are necessary. There have been constant initiatives regarding fertilizers, driven by the MoA and other stakeholders in the sector. In the year 2011, potassium fertilizers (K 2SO 4, and KCl), urea supergranules (USG), and YaraMila were tested against conventional DAP and urea application on various farmer s plots and Farmer Training Centers (FTCs). Results from the trials conducted on farmers plots in Debre Birhan, Gimbichu, and Adea woredas showed that applying K 2SO 4 and KCl additionally over DAP and urea for tef, wheat, and barley increased yield on average by up to 14 quintals per ha (Exhibit 20). Application of USG also had equivalent or greater yield increase impact compared to conventional 55 Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Potential in Ethiopia: Constraints and opportunities for enhancing the system. IFPRI,

75 urea, while YaraMila showed varying results in yield impact by region, versus DAP and urea, implying the importance of regional customization of fertilizer applications. In 2012, the MoA coordinated another set of trials, this time in ~260 FTCs in four AGP regions. The intention was to further verify the impact of the three fertilizers tested in 2011, and also to conduct trials on additional formulas and practices, which include ammonium sulphate nitrate, ammonium sulphate and under sowing of forage legume. The results of the 2012 trials will help to better understand the nutrient needs of different regions, which could lead to an improved recommendation of fertilizers that could provide alternatives to the current DAP and urea based application. However, this evaluation of fertilizers should be carried out further with the development of a long-term strategy, with a connection to the current soil information project, EthioSIS. With the assessed information of the soils, the MoA and the research institutes across the nations should derive the macro/micronutrient needs of the different geographical categories of Ethiopia and develop specific recommendations of formulas and rates. Exhibit 20: Fertilizer trial first phase activity results Establishment of soil fertility and health management technology registry and release system: Similar to other agricultural technologies, such as seed technology, the contribution of soil fertility and health management technology is equally if not more important to the growth of the agricultural system in general and crop production and productivity in particular. However, in order to ensure that, a system should be put in place to better follow-up on new technologies that are 65

76 made available for farmers and for proper utilization and management at the same time. The system would help to create a responsible body for reviewing and testing of the performance of new technologies and recommendations in different zones before they are released for wider use. The establishment of such a system should lead to better management and coordination of new technologies and should help in creating an experience-sharing platform for soil fertility and health management technologies. Strengthen the soil focus of the extension system: The key to strengthening the soil focus of the extension system can be viewed in two ways: (1) is to have the relevant personnel in place in the system, and (2) is to establish a soil fertility and management department or division, at both the federal and regional level. Regarding the first option, each unit of the extension system is currently supposed to have a natural resource expert. However, in most of the cases the expert is lacking, with an expert of a different field of expertise overlooking the soil side. Soil experts are limited even in the MoA and the RBoAs. It is difficult to plan and implement the dissemination of technologies and practices properly when there isn t enough manpower with relevant expertise. Considering the situation, additional soil experts should be supplemented to the system, from the Ministry and the Regional Bureaus to zones and woredas. In addition to reinforcing the number of soil experts in the system, there are also fundamental problems in the extension system (e.g., compensation gap with research, limited communication effectiveness). Regarding the second option, establishing a division or a department at both the federal and regional level would be instrumental for the following reasons: - The soil fertility agenda has very limited recognition in the extension system, which is discussed in detail in the systemic bottleneck section - The recent soil fertility mapping initiative and different fertilizer trial exercises, as well as other potential efforts (such as ISFM and complex fertilizer use through blending) should bring about multiple interventions that will need to be channelled to smallholder farmers - As increased awareness creation is needed in order to promote accessing of STLs services, a dedicated soil fertility and management extension division should bolster holistic soil fertility management initiatives, while simultaneously bring about a significant shift in agricultural production and productivity The general issues of the extension system will not be dealt with in this sector strategy document, but will be covered within the sector strategy developed by the ATA s Research & Extension Program. Increased research initiatives and resource allocation on soil health and fertility: As mentioned earlier, research on soil health and fertility receive less focus compared to other agricultural areas, such as crops and livestock. Although the fertility of the soil is the basis of productive agriculture, a strong emphasis on what is adoptable and effective to improve the situation is limited. Therefore, an increase in the number of research initiatives, along with the expansion of the required budget, is necessary. For instance, there hasn t been a structured national research approach to identify adoptable organic matter management practices in Ethiopia, while organic matter depletion is one of the most severe soil-level bottlenecks in the country. 66

77 There are various management methods for organic matter, from crop residue management to adoption of bio-fertilizers, and the research system should coordinate pilots and trials that are customized to the situation and environment of each respective region. This would help to understand the economic and implementation feasibility of different management practices and help to select a set of optimal interventions. This should be supported by securing the necessary budget to fund the initiative. When it comes to experts and infrastructure, the challenge is mainly concerned with budgets. There has to be a common understanding with the stakeholders in the different areas of agricultural research regarding the significance of soil research. An assessment of the expertise and infrastructure requirements, both in terms of the absolute need and the relative comparison against other research areas, should be conducted. EIAR should be able to coordinate the effort and mediate the decision among other research areas. One inevitable function for enabling technology generation is the assessment of the collected data. The existing seventeen soil laboratories in the nation have the mandate for this; however, there is certainly room for improvement. Enhancing capacity for assessment/interpretation of soil data: The soils collected through sampling contain a vast amount of valuable information. There are multiple techniques and processes that are available to assess the soil, in order to draw out information and interpret meaningful implications and recommendations from it. Some examples of soil analyses are: particle size and bulk density analysis, ph and electrical conductivity testing, organic carbon/matter assessment, micronutrient testing, and water and tissues analysis. It is important to ensure that NSTC and all the RSTLs are capable of conducting these critical pieces of the soil analysis. Building the capacity can be summarized in three aspects, which are: infrastructure, human resource, and management systems. The expert report by Mohammed Assen submitted to the Agricultural Growth Program aptly states the recommendations, which are briefly summarized here: - Lab infrastructure: According to the AGP expert report on lab assessment, the deficiency in infrastructure and equipment in labs is quite significant. When solving the issue, the first step is the securement of a budget. Improving the infrastructure and availability and use of equipment is roughly estimated to cost $2.5 million USD on a national scale. The focus areas include replacement of the old and non-functioning instruments, identification and bulk purchase of required spare types, training of technicians on operation and light maintenance of instruments, recruiting of capable maintenance technicians, and installation of emergency water tankers and power generators. - Human resource: Improvement of human capability can be divided into three categories: recruiting, training, and retention. Recruiting qualified and experienced staff is an easy thing to say, but the key underlying driver is the compensation and incentive scheme. The included allowance may include laboratory dresses, mileage, housing, overtime payments, some payments from services given to commercial farmers, researchers, and other private organizations/individuals. 56 Strengthening the collaboration/linkage between higher 56 Mohammed Assen. Assessment of the performance of national and regional soil testing laboratories/in AGP woreda/, lime production, distribution and methods of lime requirement determination for acid soils of Ethiopia. AGP,

78 learning institutions could also benefit recruitment by increasing exposure to potential talent. Training is also weak in most of the labs, and there isn t a single national level training center in Ethiopia focusing on nurturing soil lab technicians. Long and short term training is needed for soil, water, and plant analysis procedures, including: operation, cleaning and maintenance of available instruments, calibration of results, working environment improvement of laboratories, soil survey and sampling methodologies, data interpretation, agronomy, soil physics, microbiology, soil surveying, and soil fertility management for researchers. 57 Retention of developed talent requires a well-established career trajectory with incentives designed accordingly. The technicians should be able to plan their futures working in the labs, in terms of promotions and increased levels of responsibility and management. Hence, development of a career plan is critical, which is currently lacking. In addition, provision of refreshment training could also help with human resource retention. - Management system: There are multiple problems resulting from the existing management system. For one, the National Soil Testing Center is not playing a coordination roll as the mandate and management structure of the regional soil testing laboratories is not aligned with the NSTC mandate. As a result, the backstopping service is not being carried out smoothly. Secondly, all the regional soil laboratories lack uniformity in terms of reporting structure. This is because two of the regional laboratories report to the research institute in their respective regions, while the other two regional soil laboratories report to their respective regional bureau of agriculture. Therefore, below are the two proposed interventions: Strengthening the coordination effort of NSTC by expanding the mandate for further prioritization and approval of soil testing activities: Currently, NSTC s mandate involves training, procurement of equipment, and data quality monitoring. However, it lacks actual control of the mandated functions, especially around procurement. A mechanism that could ensure centralized coordination (e.g., federal/regional proclamation) is critical. In addition, expanding the mandate for further prioritization and approval of soil testing activities should be considered to enhance the coordination among the services provided by the labs, and to accelerate implementation of national level initiatives (e.g., fertilizer recommendations, liming). 57 Mohammed Assen. Assessment of the performance of national and regional soil testing laboratories/in AGP woreda/, lime production, distribution and methods of lime requirement determination for acid soils of Ethiopia. AGP,

79 Uniform reporting structure: the soil laboratories mandate clearly dictates that the purpose of soil testing laboratories is to provide soil sampling and analysis for informed fertilizer recommendation and advisory services to farmers. The on-going initiative by the MoA and RBoAs to promote new nutrient composite fertilizers in the country, along with the soil fertility resource mapping initiative and the need of increasing fertilizer use by small holder farmers, surely necessitates a push for soil testing laboratories to strengthen the support that these institutions are providing in terms of fertilizer recommendation and advisory services. In order to accelerate fertilizer adoption rates, aligning the soil testing laboratories services under the bureaus of agriculture should facilitate an improved working relationship between extension agents and soil testing laboratories, as extension agents play a significant role in supporting the soil testing laboratories services. India s soil testing laboratories can serve as a benchmark for uniform structure (Box 6). Development of proper irrigation management and research capacity related to soils: The prerequisite for irrigation management is understanding the potential source of irrigation water relative to its demand. Currently there are ten on-going irrigation projects on major water bodies of Ethiopia. These projects, based on their hectare coverage, are grouped as either small-, medium-, or large-scale irrigation schemes. As part of a proper irrigation management system effort, the ATA s Household Irrigation Program is facilitating a groundwater mapping exercise with data collection support from various ministries and agencies, including the Geological Survey of Ethiopia, Ministry of Water and Energy, Ethiopian Mapping Agency, Addis Ababa University, and others. This should provide a basis for the information regarding water availability and irrigation potential for different parts of Ethiopia, as it relates to groundwater based irrigation. The next step will be identifying proper technologies and practices that could be adopted to enable effective water supplies reaching each area, and implementing them. [Box 6] India s soil laboratory management system case Structure There are over 500 soil testing labs under the Indian MoA, which are run by two autonomous bodies under the MoA: the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (NIAEM) Under ICAR, there are four soil institutes specializing in specific soil problems; each has regional soil testing labs and centers in different regions Under NIAEM, there are regional and district level soil laboratories In addition, there are private soil testing labs that are independent and work in different parts of the country Mandate Soil labs under ICAR institutions focus heavily on research related soil fertility analysis across the nation; focus is on their own respective problems while they coordinate with their supervising institutions Soil labs under NIAEM are mandated to provide soil testing services for fertilizer recommendations to farmers up to the district level; these are under their regional National Agricultural Institute of Agricultural Management (NAIAM) Private laboratories are established for commercial soil test and analysis work which supplements public soil testing and fertilizer recommendation efforts Budget allocation ICAR and NIAEM are funded by MoA which allocate the budget to the labs under their supervision, based on request The labs supplement the budget individually through private funding The salary and compensation scheme of soil labs under ICAR and NIAEM are similar respectively Lessons for Ethiopia Having an autonomous central body with budget control would enable better coordination, with similar resource allocation schemes and submissive working relationship across labs, even in the federal system Allocating labs for different purposes (i.e., research and extension) could be a way to prevent the divergence in the management system and avoid conflict in the utilization for different purposes Source: Balaguru, T. and Raman, K.V. Agricultural Research System in India, 1988; Expert interview 69

80 Throughout the process, quality control of the irrigation water should have a strong focus as well. The ATA s Household Irrigation Program, coordinating with the National Resource Management directorate of the MoA, could take a lead in facilitating the interventions regarding irrigation management. The ATA would endeavour to coordinate with other government bodies who are working on irrigation and water resource management, such as the Ministry of Water Resources. In addition, work could be done to build the capacity of the irrigation research system, to look into irrigation related soil problems that hinder soil health and fertility, such as salinity, in order to prevent soil salinity from the beginning. Different irrigation focused research endeavours also need focus on the negative impact irrigation can sometimes have on soil health and fertility. Thorough research on water quality, not only for crop production but also for soil health, needs to be set in place to control soil salinity and sodicity at a systemic level. Development of enhanced connection mechanism between research, extension, and academia: Enhancing the connection between research, extension, and academia is another critical task to be carried out. In the present system, research is the responsibility of EIAR and the regional research institutions, while extension functions under the MoA and the respective RBoAs. There could be various approaches to resolving this, which could be examined by the ATA s Research & Extension Program for further recommendations Input value chain Agricultural inputs can be identified as the resources that are used in farm production, such as chemicals, equipment, feed, seed, and energy. 58 This section will focus on chemical fertilizer and soil amendments as these are the two soil related inputs with urgent needs in the Ethiopian context. In addition, these inputs are commoditized enough to factor into the value chain aspect, unlike inputs with less development (e.g., commercial organic compost). Improving competency of the fertilizer value chain: There are four key areas related to the fertilizer value chain that require interventions to improve the current situation. Each area requires close examination and assessment to identify key bottlenecks and related interventions. IFPRI, with the support from the ATA s Input & Output Markets Program, has conducted a study on the Ethiopian fertilizer value chain and storage systems, which covers most of the areas listed below. The study includes both bottlenecks and suggested interventions regarding the matter. The IFPRI report requires follow-up for further study and implementation planning from a responsible administrative body within the government (i.e., the Inputs Directorate of the MoA): - Demand assessment: Adaptations to existing demand-calculation methods or development of a new fertilizer demand projection model that could improve accuracy and efficiency is necessary. A recent IFPRI study has presented a projection model that can forecast the fertilizer demand based on the historical data. The model specifically accounts for the government targets, Belg season requirements, and climatic conditions. Also, the primary cooperatives should be an integral part of the demand assessment, given that they are the closest to the farmers who have knowledge of local demand. Finally, conducting a training session for relevant GOE officials, in order to illustrate the key concepts and train them on 58 Webster dictionary 70

81 triangulating the demand assessments based on the model, coops, and methods practiced thus far could be beneficial Value chain efficiency: To develop recommendations, key weaknesses in the current distribution system should be clearly identified, including: the lack of sufficient transportation infrastructure, the duplication of efforts in fertilizer distribution among cooperatives and federations, location of central warehousing, and port congestion. In addition, introducing smaller bagging practices could be considered, as opposed to the current operations which deal only in bulk. Given the smallholder s preference for smaller quantities, the limited infrastructure for bulk transportation, and the systemic problems underlying the cooperatives channel (including their limited bargaining power and unprofitable margin structure), introducing smaller bagging quantities could solve affordability issue Storage: A study is required to recommend the required expansion in current storage facilities and technical capacity at the household, community, regional, and national levels. Also, inventory management is in need of improvement, which may require a digitalized network to monitor and optimize the flow of fertilizer Adoption and affordability: Interventions that can improve affordability and profitability, showing expected impacts and risks, and interventions that address specific barriers to farmer adoption should be developed. One potential intervention could be the reduction of fertilizer prices for smallholder farmers. The analysis from the IFPRI report suggests, ceteris paribus, that such an intervention should be cost-effective, with a benefit cost ratio of 1.12, when fertilizer is supplied at a price that is at least 15% lower than existing market prices. This should also lead to the reduction of the existing carryover stocks. 62 Establishment of domestic fertilizer production capacity: Currently, most of the fertilizer applied in Ethiopia is imported. There is nothing wrong with importing fertilizer, especially when the cost of importing is lower than domestic production. However, given the future demand for compound fertilizers, the establishment of domestic blending plants is a key solution to bringing immediate impact to soil fertility and increased crop productivity. Assuming the establishment of one of more blending plants in Ethiopia, physical bulk blending seems to be the most effective choice, given the evaluation of various criteria (Exhibit 21). There are also multiple consideration factors required to make an optimal decision on the location, capacity, timing, and expertise of development, which include market demand, logistical environment and cost, raw material source, and key demand, as well as the potential for Public/Private Partnerships (PPP). Currently the MoA, with support from the ATA, is setting up a team to establish four fertilizer blending plants in the Amhara, Tigray, Oromia, and SNNP Regions. This is being done by addressing the above uncertainties simultaneously, particularly focusing on formula, capacity, demand, and 59 Fertilizer in Ethiopia: Policies, Value Chain, and Profitability. IFPRI, Fertilizer in Ethiopia: Policies, Value Chain, and Profitability. IFPRI, Fertilizer in Ethiopia: Policies, Value Chain, and Profitability. IFPRI, Fertilizer in Ethiopia: Policies, Value Chain, and Profitability. IFPRI,

82 logistics. In addition to this initial planning, when deciding on the expansion of the blending capacity, the following has to be carefully considered: - Raw material reserve: The amount of raw materials available for fertilizer production will be limited in the country. An aggressive expansion may result in inhibiting the long-term supply that should help balance out the imported volume of fertilizers. Therefore, a careful planning of the production capacity is necessary. - Logistical cost: As the raw material sources for fertilizers are scattered around the different parts of the country, the produced fertilizers from different regions must travel significant distances to meet their users. Therefore, it is important to assess the logistical cost comparison between domestic production and imported to determine the optimal amount of domestic production. - Opportunity cost of fuel: Given the lack of natural gas and oil in the nation, the energy source for the fertilizer manufacturing facilities is mainly coal. However, as coal itself is a limited resource, this needs further examination to determine the optimal use, as it could also be used in other industry purposes. Exhibit 21: Assessment of different fertilizer producing technologies 72

83 Furthermore, given that there are some raw material sources in Ethiopia for fertilizer production (e.g., phosphorous, potassium), there is potential for achieving cost advantages through the establishment of in-country production capabilities. The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) has set the following targets for the fertilizer industry: - To establish five urea fertilizer factories with total annual capacity of 1.5 million metric tonnes (300,000 tonnes each) - To establish three DAP (Diammonium Phosphate ) fertilizer factories with total capacity of 750,000 tonnes (250,000 tonnes each) - To establish a sulphuric acid factory with annual capacity of 1.02 million tonnes Establishment of amendments production facilities near areas of need: As shown in the description of soil-level bottlenecks, the supply for lime is far behind the required demand, and the situation for other soil amendments is no better. Therefore, establishment of soil amendment production facilities around the areas of need is critical. As mentioned above, the MoA is already establishing 4 lime crushers in different regions and supplying a certain amount of lime, which is still below the required demand. When implementing the expansion plan, it is important to consider the required amount of lime based on the soil situation and crop production capacity of the region. This process should be supported by regional research and soil testing laboratories. The location of the facilities should also keep the raw material availability and logistical costs in mind, to ensure efficient use of resources. Establishment and expansion of bio-fertilizer production facilities: The use of different biofertilizers has been a growing intervention that the MoA has recently put in place. The production and distribution of nitrogen-releasing rhizobia inoculants is undertaken by the National Soil Testing Laboratory and Regional Soil Testing Laboratories respectively, under the supervision of the MoA in the Amhara and Oromia Regions. This effort needs to be further developed by creating an enabling environment for Regional Soil Testing Laboratories to be able to engage in the production of these inoculants and other bio-fertilizer products. As the Amhara region has already proposed the establishment of a bio-fertilizer processing facility to its Regional Bureau of Agriculture, the effort needs to be supported and replicated to other regions as well, through a well-coordinated approach, depending on demand. Needless to say, because of increased demand for this input and the apparent goal of doubling agricultural production and productivity, NSTC production capacity needs to be further expanded to accommodate the everincreasing demand of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Adoption of policy/regulation enabling more player participation in fertilizer distribution: While identifying the formulas for recommendation is one step, making them available in the market is another. As mentioned in the description of systemic bottlenecks, most of the fertilizers in Ethiopia are imported through a sole importer, AISE, which is exercising cost-effectiveness through economy of scale. However, inefficiencies exist in the distribution of fertilizer to the smallholder farmers, including last mile distribution. And there is potential for this problem to worsen when there are more types of products introduced into the market. One approach to address the issue is the introduction of more players from the private sector. In certain geographies, private traders may have the potential to manage considerably lower transport costs, compared to the cooperatives. In fact, a focus group interview of private traders showed that given their previous experiences in the market and the existing ample warehouse 73

84 capacity and working capital, they would expect to recoup their costs immediately, with the quick ramp-up potential of 100,000 to 200,000 tons of distribution per year. 63 Hence, a thorough analysis should be launched to assess the potential impact of introducing such players into the market. Expansion of existing financial services (e.g., microfinancing, financial support) to smallholder farmers: As a yet unpublished IFPRI study shows, fertilizer prices have been increasing since 2009 but fertilizer credit is very limited as cash sales are openly promoted. However there are some disparities among regions. In Oromia and Tigray, there is no official fertilizer credit for farmers but some mircrofinancing institutions provide partial credit to assist them in fertilizer purchase. For farmers in the remotest areas, as well as food insecure zones, in the Amhara and SNNP Regions, there was a 50% down payment arrangement. Moreover, for some zones/woredas, the regional governments decided to also provide a 50% down payment when farmers didn t buy the expected quantity in cash on time. There are some mechanisms in place for lime as well. In the SNNP Region, all the farmers have free access to lime, whereas in Amhara the price farmers pay varies from 75 birr to 280 birr per 100kg, depending on the location of the cooperatives from the production site. For farmers who can afford the payment, they purchase the lime directly in cash, and for those who cannot afford it, they borrow the amount needed from the cooperatives. However, in some cooperatives, credit is only available to member farmers. Although there are some existing financial services explained above, they are not sufficient to fulfill the smallholder farmers needs. Therefore, expansion of the financial services schemes may be necessary in the future, such as credit service provision for lime application through available financial channels, including microfinance institutions and banks Strategic and regulatory framework Policies are important mechanisms to shape the sector, and for creating a supporting environment for development. The policies influence the soil sector in various aspects, from regulations related to inorganic fertilizer import to standards for organic compost products. Some policies are already developed but are having trouble getting implemented in the field, while some are not yet in place or ready to be enacted. Below are some specific policy areas that this strategy would recommend prioritizing: Establishment of input quality control system: A national input quality control system is a comprehensive effort that will requires intensive planning and execution. The following are the major elements that are necessary for establishing such a system: Provide guidelines and enforce internal quality control for all input producers and distributors: The establishment of clear and comprehensive quality guidelines for all components of the input system is among the most important steps in internal quality control. The Inputs Directorate of the MoA should lead this process by developing guidelines and minimum standards, including the number and qualifications of quality control staff, internal quality labs for producers, and storage and transport facilities. Regional authorities 63 John W. Mello. Critical issues/questions for fertiliizer policy. JMA/AMDe/AGP,

85 should then enforce standards through inspection, certification, and capacity-building for compliance. This should ensure high quality for all the major elements of the system. Build capacity for internal quality control for all input producers and distributors: In addition to (and perhaps even more important than) external quality control, internal quality control systems are critical. This is especially true for ensuring that quality is maintained in the production phase, including the acquisition of high quality source materials. Producers need sufficient human resources with the right skill sets and facilities for the staff to carry out their functions. The distributors should also have internal quality labs that test and evaluate the inputs, similar to the role of external regulators. The players in the input value chain need to understand regulatory requirements and have the capacity to build their internal quality control systems. Strengthen regional inspection and certification capacity: Despite the internal control systems that the producers and distributors are expected to establish, the country will need to ensure that it has sufficient inspection and certification capacity to regulate and manage the industry. When compound fertilizers with more complex formulas and product varieties are introduced, the complexity of inspection will increase, which won t be manageable with the current regulatory capacity. Therefore, all regions need to be supported so that they have the necessary resources to enforce standards across all producers and distributors in a timely manner. Provide recourse mechanism for all farmers who are sold poor quality inputs: The ultimate quality evaluation is done by the end user. The farmers need to know how to identify an instance of poor quality and how to take recourse action. To enable recourse, the regulatory system should ensure the use of labeling for each batch of inputs of all categories. The label will need to be traceable to the distributor, producers, and production lots. This would enable farmers to report specific cases of bad quality inputs and for regulators to track, investigate, and take due action. For example, in 2011 the Amhara Region ensured that seed producers who sold poor quality seed provided concerned farmers a total of 612,000 birr in compensation payments. This is a demonstration of regulatory institutions protecting farmers and their investments. Development/enforcement of regional strategy for agricultural land use planning: As covered above, a regional strategy should be developed and enforced, in order to ensure optimal utilization of the land in each region. The strategic planning and enforcement should consider: Agricultural productivity of land areas: Different areas have different potential for agricultural production. Therefore, it is a loss to agriculture when highly productive lands are used for other purposes, such as urban infrastructure of manufacturing facilities. Land degradation: Prevention and reclamation of land degradation is a key component of agricultural land use management. There has to be a well-developed understanding of the land degradation status of the region, in terms of the type and coverage. Furthermore, a strategy to address the degradation should be thought through. Land ownership/tenure: Land tenure rights are the clearest incentive for a farmer to increase productivity on the plot. Hence, it is important to have clear guidelines and security 75

86 for land rights for agricultural production. Various land certification and administration projects could be further expanded in terms of scope and detail. Develop/build capacity for soil pollution control and regulatory enforcement: As was already pointed out in the systemic bottlenecks section, a lack of comprehensive soil pollution control enforcement exists. These issues ranges from a lack of capacity and capability, to a lack of regulation and rules for enforcement. Improvements in this area can be implemented by increasing the capacity and capability to strengthen the policy enforcement mechanisms, increasing coordination across sectorial and regional offices, and establishing an EIA enforcement mechanism at the grassroots level. These recommendations require a holistic approach to fully control soil pollution and contamination by amending industry and agricultural practices Organization and management systems When considering the interventions, the organizations that implement them and the management systems across different organizations are fundamental areas to be reviewed. As covered in the previous sections, there are various stakeholders that are related to soil health and fertility issues in Ethiopia. The coordination between all of these stakeholders is essential, and should be well structured and led. However, to do this, there are also some organizations that require improvement in their internal management systems. In particular, the two groups of organizations to focus on are the research institutions and the soil laboratories across the nation. Establishment of national soil resource institute: As discussed under the systemic bottlenecks section, most of the soil-level bottlenecks are exacerbated by inadequate coordination across different stakeholders. In particular, improving soil productivity through increased fertilizer consumption necessitates various interventions, one of which is the establishment of a national soil resource institute, which would provide the following benefits: o o o Improved focus on soil: Considering the extensive land mass of the country and the likely potential for high agricultural development in the near future, current soil resource assessment and improvements efforts are marginal. Therefore, future development plans should call for a lot more systematic and detailed inventory of soil resources with fertility evaluation studies for tailored soil improvement recommendations. At the same time, with the promising soil fertility programs underway, up-to-date soil resource information is instrumental to sustain and build upon these efforts. This requires capacity and capability building in different areas of soil science. In this respect, it would be beneficial if the soil program were organized under one independent soil resource institute for holistic soil fertility and resource management, thereby providing improved recommendations. Increased coordination and management of national soil resource information findings and activities: The body will ensure improved coordination of soil resource data management platform as it will be responsible for such efforts on a national scale. This will also help to minimize regional and federal inconsistencies by creating effective working relationship among actors Coordinating and managing soil resource information: As discussed in the soil information management section, the institute would be responsible for coordinating and managing all 76

87 national soil resource activities. All of these major activities are discussed in the soil information management section of this document. When examining examples from other countries, there are two categories of cases to consider, as seen in Box 7: 1) Countries such as India, the U.S., and South Africa, with independent soil research institutes. These institutes operate with separate budgets and reporting systems, handling national soil research undertakings and coordinating the soil research undertakings of different bodies. 2) Countries such as Ghana and Nigeria with national soil focused organizations (Kumasi Soil Resource Center and Nigerian Soil Survey Institute, respectively). These entities are responsible for documenting national soil information, including data from profile samples collected from thousands of locations. These entities also possess national soil resource databases. To date, however, Ethiopia lacks an effort to develop anything in line with the above cases. As a recommendation therefore, given soil s importance as the fundamental resource for agriculture, it is worth considering the establishment of such an institute in Ethiopia, in order to take soil efforts to the next level. This would also be consistent with different institutes that are being established by the government of Ethiopia: such as an agency to administer investment lands, and [Box 7] Independent soil focused institutes in India, USA, South Africa, Ghana and Nigeria Case 1: Independent soil research institutes in India, USA, and South Africa India There are four soil research institutes in India under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), each acting as a center of excellence in a distinct research discipline. The mandate of these four institutes is to: Conduct basic soil research within their areas of discipline, in collaboration with universities that have similar research disciplines Evaluate and implement research activities extending beyond the administrative boundaries of the state, focusing on their areas of excellence Develop manpower for agricultural universities and other agricultural institutes that work in the institute s area of discipline The budget is allocated and administered by ICAR, and the regional committees of this body administer the budget flow for each region-specific soil institute, according to the institutions requests. United States There are a large number of private and public soil research institutes that are segregated at federal and state levels, but which are still under the Director of Science and Education, which is the highest organization for research coordination under the US Department of Agriculture. The federal soil research institutes direct most of their efforts towards basic and/or applied research on problems of national importance, while the state level institutes primarily focus on problems of regional/local relevance The Director of Science and Education allocates and administers budgets for both federal and regional institutes, according to the institutions requests South Africa There is one soil research institute under the Agricultural Research Council of South Africa, which is called the Institute of Soil, Climate, and Water (ISCW). ISCW is responsible for coordinating and initiating collaboration on different natural resource research activities and initiatives across the country The budget allocation and administration is carried out by the Agricultural Research Council which is the apex body of research coordination Case 2: Soil Resource Centers in Ghana and Nigeria Ghana: Kumasi Soil Resource Center The institute is mandated to generate information and technologies for effective planning, utilization, and management of soil resources of Ghana under the Natural Resource Sector. The center is responsible for undertaking soil resource assessment, evaluation and land use planning for agricultural development and other land use platforms, carrying out soil surveys at detailed reconnaissance level, and managing the soil database at a national level The budget is allocated and administered by the Ghana Ministry of Agriculture, i.e., the highest body in the Ghana agricultural system Nigerian Soil Survey Institute The institute, similar to Kumasi Soil Resource Center in Ghana, is mandated to conduct detailed soil surveys and soil resource assessments across different agroecologies of the country, and to collect landscape information for broader land administration and agricultural planning. The institute also has a digital national soil resource database to document soil information including data from profile samples collected from thousands of locations The institute is administered by the Nigerian Ministry of Agriculture which is the apex body of the Nigerian agricultural system. Source: Balaguru, T. and Raman, K.V. Agricultural Research System in India, 1988; Arnon, I. Organization and Administration of Agricultural Research, 1968; National Agricultural Research Development Strategy: Department of Agriculture, SA, 2008; US Department of Agriculture; South Africa Research Council: Ghana Ministry of Agriculture; Nigerian Ministry of Agriculture and African Soil Information Systems (AfSIS) 77

88 an independent agency dedicated to cotton industry development and promotion. This growing number of agencies, either as independent or research entities, focused on a specific commodity or sector (i.e., sugarcane and cotton) demonstrates the government s interest in developing the sectors, and agricultural productivity in particular. As the initiatives proposed in this strategy document require constant and up-to-date soil resource information, establishing a National Soil Resource Institute is instrumental to ensure the success of the initiatives goals and objectives. The soil resource institute should act as a center of excellence, which reports to the Ministry of Agriculture. In particular, the institute should be responsible for the following distinct activities: - Soil resource database management: Administer the soil resource database and regularly update soil resources, through collaboration with other bodies - Soil focal institute: Provide services related to soils, as a center of excellence, including coordination, training and technical support for soil research among the regions, and planning and management of national soil-related initiatives - Soil fertility mapping: Carry out national soil fertility and resource mapping exercises and regularly update such undertakings - Support land use planning: Execute national as well as regional soil surveys to support land use planning strategies - Standardization of soil sampling and analysis: Establish soil sample collection, processing, and laboratory analysis standards for specific parameters that would be useful for uniform soil research and soil survey work - Information sharing: Establish a system in which different organizations in the Ethiopian soil sector could easily upload and download the information to/from the atlas - Information distribution: Create information distribution solutions, through internet and other customer/user interfaces This institute would be a huge asset toward realizing the government s national strategy of increasing fertilizer usage by SHFs. The resource institute could be built with a new institutional setup and organizational structure. [Box 8] Description of EARC Objective Coordinate all actors in the agricultural research system in the country Build the capacity of the research system to better contribute to the country s agricultural development Establish strong linkage between local and foreign agricultural research organizations Wisely allocate secured local and foreign resources to improve research capacity, based on research agenda and priority Organizational Structure EARC would be structured under the MoA on a State Minister level and would have its own major divisions and directorates, with administrative and supporting work processes Structured under the Council would be the implementing institutes, including: federal and regional agricultural research institutes, and universities agricultural research divisions, as well as other public and private agricultural development organizations and aid organizations, etc., where the council is to give technical advice and coordination Regional agricultural research institutes would be accountable to the Council, and to the regional governments where they belong Universities agricultural research divisions would be accountable to the Council, and to their universities Budget Federal agricultural research institutes: as it is directly and fully accountable to the Council in both administrative and research matters, budget for the execution of national projects would be allocated from the Council Regional agricultural research institutes: the budget for national excellence center projects under the region, and for collaborative national projects, would be allocated from the Council Universities carrying out agricultural research: the budget for execution of national excellence center projects under the university budget would be allocated only from the Council Source: Draft Document on the Establishment of A New Ethiopian Agricultural Research System Coordination 78

89 Revision of nationwide soil research and systems: One key area of clarification necessary is the role and responsibility of EIAR. Although the 1997 proclamation states that EIAR is responsible for the coordination of national research efforts, and also has a mandate for direct implementation, the continuing conflict with EIAR and the regional research institutions needs to be resolved. Therefore, establishment of the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Council (EARC) is being discussed. EARC would be the coordinating body between the different agricultural research institutions across the nation (Box 8). In this model, coordination of research activities would no longer be EIAR s mandate, and EIAR would be able to focus solely on research and implementation, just like the RARIs. Fine-tuning of the agreements, endorsement decision bodies, and prompt implementation of the new model should be carried out. Revision of nationwide laboratory management structure and system: The idea for improving the management structure of the 17 soil labs across Ethiopia has been briefly covered in section 4.3. Again, the key here is to gain uniformity in the system Prioritization of systemic interventions The different systemic interventions have differing magnitudes of impact to soil health and fertility as well as to agricultural productivity. Moreover, the interventions vary in terms of feasibility due to a variety of factors, including: level of investment, level of engagement by multiple implementers, time required, and whether they are already on-going or not. The following prioritization exercise is helpful in order to assess how to utilize limited resources most effectively and how to manage the timely implementation of interventions. As can be seen in Exhibit 22, the majority of the systemic interventions listed have a high magnitude of impact to soil health and fertility and to agricultural productivity. Exhibit 22: Prioritization of systemic interventions 79

90 Based on this prioritization exercise, interventions with a high magnitude of impact are sequenced under the first phase of activity, along with selected activities from the soil-level interventions, as detailed in section 5.3 of this document. Interventions with a medium magnitude of impact are sequenced under phase two of the implementation timeframe, whereas the remaining activities would be covered during the latter stages of the strategy implementation. 80

91 5. Summary of interventions 5.1 Implementation framework The implementation of the holistic set of interventions outlined above will require a concerted effort on the part of many partners. These interventions should be coordinated and sequenced in order to fully utilize all partners and reduce overlap/duplication, while addressing gaps. In order to achieve this, this document has outlined a systematic implementation framework to guide the process. The interventions outlined in this document have been grouped into eight broad implementation areas: 3 in soil-level interventions and 5 in systemic interventions (Exhibit 23). At the soil-level, the interventions are: soil problem zonation, technology package preparation strengthening and dissemination, and extension. The systemic side consists of: soil information management, technology generation and dissemination linkage, input value chain, strategic and regulatory framework, and organization and management systems (which are identical in structure to the systemic bottlenecks identified). Implementation of each of the intervention areas and their respective activities should be undertaken by concerned institutions at the federal and especially regional levels. Furthermore, each area should have an institutional owner that is responsible for driving the implementation and monitoring the progress. Exhibit 23: Summary of soil-level and systemic interventions and implementation owners 81

92 At the national level, the implementation of the strategy should be guided by a National Soil Strategy Steering Committee. Its members could consist of senior policy makers from the MoA, RBoAs, EIAR, RARIs, and other key stakeholders from the soil sector (Exhibit 25). The Committee would provide highlevel guidance to ensure that implementation is on-track to achieving the vision, inculding: oversee resource allocation, review progress, and provide feedback. It would also serve as a body aimed at overcoming emerging challenges and refining the strategy so that it remains relevant as the sector continues to evolve. Under the national steering committee, there could be a working group at a national level to execute and communicate decisions. Exhibit 24: Soil sector strategy implementation overseeing bodies 82

93 In addition to the national steering committee, there would be four Regional Planning and Implementation Platforms (RPIPs). The RPIPs would be responsible for two primary functions: providing guidance on regional and geographic implementation interventions; and acting as a coordinating forum among all regional stakeholders. Regional leadership should lead the platform by prioritizing both regional and geographic interventions. Existing regional representatives could serve as ATA s primary focal persons in managing implementation activities, as directed by the platform. Tactically, regional representatives should be appointed as platform secretaries to effectively manage interventions on the ground. The regional secretariat would have dual reporting lines to the ATA and BoAs. Officially, regional secretariats could report directly to the ATA Addis Ababa office, providing monthly updates in person and weekly updates via . This frequency of communication should be effective for at least the first 12 months of operation and contribute to strengthening capacity. Additionally, in reporting to the BoAs, regional secretariats could support regional priorities, as identified by the platform. Meanwhile, the ATA could provide implementation support in terms of continued problem solving, supporting resource mobilization, project management and coordination. 83