Participatory Forest Management ( )

Transcription

1 Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs DANIDA Environment, Peace and Stability Facility (MIFRESTA) Environment Support Programme (ESP) Participatory Forest Management ( ) TANZANIA COMPONENT DOCUMENT Ref.No. 104.Tanzania.1.MFS October 2002

2 COVER PAGE Country Sector Title of Component National Agencies : Tanzania : Environment (Environment, Peace and Stability Facility) : Participatory Forest Management : Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD), Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) and President s Office- Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG) Duration : 5 years (January 2003 December 2007) Overall Budget Frame : 57.5 million DKK Description : The GoT s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper recognises the dependence of poor communities on natural resources both for income generation and for household consumption. Although forestry is not recognised as a priority sector, there is a growing understanding of the important rôle forest and woodland resources play in supporting livelihoods, providing income for the rural poor and in sustaining important ecological services. Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is a strategy to achieve sustainable forest management by encouraging the management or co-management of forest and woodland resources by the communities living closest to the resources themselves. PFM can contribute to improving rural livelihoods whilst protecting the environment and promoting gender-equality. The development objective of the PFM Component is the improved and sustainable management of Tanzania s diverse forests and woodland resources contributing to the maintenance and development of sustainable livelihoods especially among poor rural communities. The immediate objectives of the support to PFM in Tanzania recognise the need for a dual approach to support (1) the Extension and Publicity Unit within the FBD to develop and implement a National Framework for PFM and (2) the PO-RALG by supporting local implementation of PFM in selected districts in four regions (Morogoro, Iringa, Mbeya and Lindi) within the framework of the Local Government Reform Programme (LGRP). Eight outputs are to be achieved by the PFM Component during the period : (1) National framework for PFM implementation developed and institutionalised (2) Applied research and development to facilitate implementation of PFM supported (3) National PFM monitoring system developed and dovetailed to the Poverty Monitoring Master Plan, National Forest Programme and LGRP (4) Manual of PFM best practices developed and published (5) Local Government Authority human resource capacity and financial ability to support PFM enhanced (6) Village, sub-village and user group committees promoted and strengthened to support implementation of PFM (7) Participatory Forest Management Plans in selected districts developed and under implementation (8) Private forestry initiatives enhanced. At least ten districts will be supporting the facilitation of PFM with at least 200 forest-adjacent village, sub-village and specific user group communities by the end of At minimum 120,000 hectares of forest and woodlands will be brought under different PFM regimes with the local communities, either as sole managers, collectively with other villages or in partnership with central or local government. The management will provide incremental goods and services to at least 500,000 rural inhabitants. The implementation strategy is to increase the demand for PFM by forest adjacent communities whilst increasing and improving the delivery of PFM services available to these communities through a broad range of service providers. Implementation will be staggered in the selected districts depending on their previous involvement in PFM activities and in accordance with the provisions of the Guidelines for Community Based Forest Management. Developing simple, low cost and replicable PFM models and improving the range of benefits of PFM to stakeholders will address additional constraints to the expansion of PFM. Existing Danida-supported PFM projects will be fully integrated in the PFM Component during i

3 LIST OF CONTENTS: 1 INTRODUCTION VISIONS, OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS Vision Policies and Laws supporting Participatory Forest Management Participatory Forest Management in Tanzania Opportunities Barriers to achieving the vision Cross-cutting issues GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT OF THE FORESTRY SECTOR AND INPUTS FROM GOVERNMENT AND OTHER SOURCES TO SUPPORT PARTICIPATORY FOREST MANAGEMENT Context Key Stakeholders in the Forestry Sector Financing of the Forestry Sector Government contributions to Participatory Forest Management Inputs from other sources as potential PFM service providers LOGICAL FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS OF THE PFM COMPONENT Development Objective Immediate Objectives Outputs Outline of Main Activities Inputs by Danida Implementation strategy Budget Assumptions, Risks and Preconditions IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURES Organisation, Management and Administration Monitoring and Review, Reporting and Evaluation Flow of Funds, Accounting and Auditing Component Implementation Plan Appendix 1: Participatory Forest Management LFA Appendix 2: Experiences with participatory forest management in Tanzania Appendix 3: Organograms Appendix 4: PFM Component Budget and Budget Notes Appendix 5: Job Descriptions Appendix 6: PFM Service providers Appendix 7: Provisional Programme for Collaborative Forest Management Training Courses in Tanzania Appendix 8: References and bibliography ii

4 MAP OF TANZANIA AND TARGET REGIONS iii

5 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ASDS : Agriculture Sector Development Strategy ASPS : Agricultural Sector Programme Support CBFM : Community-based Forest Management CBO : Community-based Organisation CF : Community Forestry CFR : Community Forest Reserve CGFR : Central Government Forest Reserve CIP : Component Implementation Plan CSO : Civil Society Organisation CSRP : Civil Service Reform Programme Danida : Danish International Development Assistance DC : District Council DDP : District Development Plan DFA : District Forest Adviser DFO : District Forest Officer DKK : Danish Kroner DNRO : District Natural Resources Officer DOF : Danish Ornithological Foundation DPO : District Planning Officer DSU : District Support Unit EPSF : Environment, Peace and Stability Facility EPU : Extension and Publicity Unit ESP : Environment Support Programme FBD : Forestry and Beekeeping Division FR : Forest Reserve FRMP : Forest Resources Management Project GDP : Gross Domestic Product GEF : Global Environment Facility GoT : Government of Tanzania GTZ : (German Development Assistance Agency) Hima : Kiswahili acronym Hifadhi ya Mazingira for Agricultural SPS Component, Iringa Region (Phase 1) HRD : Human Resources Development IDA : International Development Association IFMS : Integrated Financial Management System IUCN : International Union for Conservation of Nature JFM : Joint Forest Management LGA : Local Government Authority LGFR : Local Government Forest Reserve LGRP : Local Government Reform Programme LGRT : Local Government Reform Team M&E : Monitoring and Evaluation MEMA : Kiswahili acronym Matumizi Endelevu ya Misitu ya Asili for Udzungwa Mountains Forest Management and Biodiversity Conservation Project and Community Based Natural Woodlands Management Project, Iringa Rural District MNRT : Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism MoF : Ministry of Finance MTEF : Medium Term Expenditure Framework NEAP : National Environmental Action Plan NFP : National Forest Programme NFP : National Forest Programme Steering Committee iv

6 NFR : National Forest Reserve NGO : Non-governmental Organisation NRBZ : Natural Resources and Buffer Zone Project (Tanga) NRM : Natural Resource Management PCG : Process Co-ordination Group PF : Private Forest PFM : Participatory Forest Management PFMWG : PFM Working Group PIM : Project Implementation Manual PMMP : Poverty Monitoring Master Plan PO-RALG : President s Office Regional Administration and Local Government PRSP : Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PSRP : Public Service Reform Programme RAS : Regional Administrative Secretariat RDE : Royal Danish Embassy RIPS : Rural Integrated Support Programme (Lindi/Mtwara) SME : Small and Medium scale Enterprises SUA : Sokoine University of Agriculture SWAp : Sector Wide Approach TA : Technical Assistance TAF : Tanzanian Association of Foresters TAFORI : Tanzania Forest Research Institute TFCG : Tanzania Forest Conservation Group TFCMP : Tanzania Forest Conservation and Management Project TFS : Tanzania Forest Service TSH : Tanzania Shilling TWICO : Tanzania Wood Industries Corporation UNCED : United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP : United Nations Development Programme USD : US Dollar UTUMI : Kiswahili acronym Utunzaji wa Misitu for the project Village Based Forest and Woodland Management in Lindi Region VA : Village Assembly VC : Village Council VEC : Village Environmental Council VFMA : Village Forest Management Area VLFR : Village Land Forest Reserve VNRC : Village Natural Resources Committee VPO : Vice President s Office WB : World Bank WCST : Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania WMA : Wildlife Management Area WWF : World Wide Fund for Nature Exchange Rates Used in Document (10 October 2002) 1 USD = 1000 TSH 1 USD = 7.50 DKK 1 DKK = 135 TSH v

7 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The vision of the Government of Tanzania (GoT) is to alleviate the widespread poverty in the Tanzanian civil society by improving socio-economic opportunities, decentralising the functions of government and improving the delivery of public services. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper recognises the dependence of poor communities on natural resources both for income generation and for household consumption. Although forestry is not recognised as a priority sector by the GoT, there is a growing understanding of the important rôle forest and woodland resources play in supporting livelihoods, providing income for the rural poor and in sustaining important ecological services. Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is a strategy to achieve sustainable forest management by encouraging the management or co-management of forest and woodland resources by the communities living closest to the resources. It is characterised by forest-adjacent communities sharing power rather than just benefits, and assuming owner/user rights and management of the resources. PFM can contribute to a broader rural development strategy which aims to improve rural livelihoods and by reducing poverty whilst at the same time protecting the environment and promoting gender-equality. Danida has supported Participatory Forest Management (PFM) activities in Tanzania for several years through the Environment Support Programme (ESP) in Iringa Rural District (MEMA projects), in Lindi Rural and Kilwa Districts (UTUMI project) and through technical assistance to the Extension and Publicity Unit (EPU) of the Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD). The original idea of improving service delivery for PFM was prepared as an integral part of the GoT/World Bank Tanzania Forest Conservation and Management Project (TFCMP). An agreement in principle for Danida to fund the PFM component of the TFCMP resulted in a draft document, prepared by a Process Co-ordination Group and process consultants, which was submitted to Danida by the end of June The present revised document was prepared on the basis of consultations with PFM stakeholders at national, regional, district, ward, village, sub-village and resource user group levels during a Danida pre-appraisal mission conducted in August The GoT has embarked on a series of fundamental reforms to address the structural discrepancy between limited public sector capacity and the enormous task of sustainably managing Tanzania s natural resources whilst endeavouring to improve the livelihoods of rural communities. These include, i.a. the Civil Service, Public Sector, Planning and Budgetary Management System and Local Government reform programmes. The PFM Component aims to build on the achievements of the GoT during the past decade which have cumulatively provided an enabling environment to facilitate the devolved and collaborative management of forest and woodland resources in Tanzania. Notable milestones have been the Forest Policy (1998), the National Forest Programme (NFP) (2001), Guidelines for Community Based Forest Management (2001) and the Forest Act (No. 7, 2002). Although considerable progress has been achieved, the GoT continues to be constrained by severe fiscal deficits, vacant professional and technical positions at regional, district and sub-district levels vi

8 and limited operational budgets. Furthermore, structural changes alone will not solve the current range of problems associated with the sustainable management of natural resources in Tanzania. Complementary changes in organisational cultures and individual behaviour to improve governance and accountability in the sector are needed as well as continued donor support. The GoT will contribute directly to implementation of the PFM Component by allocating a proportion of the FBD s annual retention scheme funds (5% is proposed, subject to negotiation). In addition, the GoT will contribute in kind with all personal emoluments for forestry/natural resources personnel already in established positions (or to be seconded if positions are vacant) at national, zonal, regional, district and sub-district levels in four regions and at least 10 District Councils. The GoT will also contribute in terms of the key support services to be provided by other relevant District Council structures and extension officers. The main sources of government funding are Treasury, a Retention Fund Scheme, District Council budgets, communities and the private sector. The total estimated GoT contribution to implementation of the PFM Component during the period amounts to 11.9m DKK. The development objective of the PFM Component is the improved and sustainable management of Tanzania s diverse forests and woodland resources contributing to the maintenance and development of sustainable livelihoods especially among poor rural communities. The immediate objectives of the support to PFM in Tanzania recognise the need for a dual approach to support the central government in developing and implementing a national framework for PFM and, concomitantly, assisting local implementation of PFM in selected districts in four regions (Morogoro, Iringa, Mbeya and Lindi) within the framework of the Local Government Reform Programme (LGRP). Eight outputs are to be achieved by the PFM Component during the period : (1) National framework for PFM implementation developed and institutionalised (2) Applied research and development to facilitate implementation of PFM supported (3) National PFM monitoring system developed and dovetailed to the Poverty Monitoring Master Plan, NFP and LGRP (4) Manual of PFM best practices developed and published (5) Local Government Authority human resource capacity and financial ability to support PFM enhanced (6) Village, sub-village and user group committees established and strengthened to support implementation of PFM (7) Participatory Forest Management Plans in selected districts developed and under implementation (8) Private forestry initiatives enhanced. By the end of 2007 at least ten districts will be supporting the facilitation of PFM with at least 200 forest-adjacent village, sub-village and specific user group communities. A minimum 120,000 hectares of forest and woodlands will be brought under different PFM regimes with the local communities, either as sole managers, collectively with other villages or in partnership with central and local government. The management will provide incremental goods and services to at least 500,000 rural inhabitants. The main PFM activities will include: (1) Awareness-raising and information about PFM at all levels, (2) Training and capacity development in PFM at all levels, (3) Promoting decentralised vii

9 planning and implementation in partnership with a broad cross-section of implementing partners and PFM service providers, (4) Supporting community-based PFM initiatives, (5) Securing incentives and financial sustainability effects, (6) Developing low cost PFM models, (7) Strengthening applied PFM research and development, and (8) Developing a broad range of best PFM practices. The implementation strategy is to stimulate the demand for PFM by forest adjacent communities whilst increasing and improving the delivery of PFM services available to these communities through a broad range of service providers. Implementation will be staggered with a number of sequential activities progressing at different levels in the selected districts depending on their previous involvement in PFM activities and in accordance with the provisions of the Guidelines for Community Based Forest Management. The selection of districts for PFM support will be based on a set of readiness and selection criteria. Additional constraints to the expansion of PFM will be addressed by developing simple, low cost and replicable PFM models and improving the range of benefits of PFM to stakeholders. Existing Danida-supported PFM projects will be fully integrated in the PFM Component during The total budget frame for the PFM Component is DKK 57.5 million over a five-year period divided into a Mobilisation Phase (2003), Implementation Phase ( ) and Consolidation Phase (2007). The main Danida inputs fall into two main block grants to support a) The national framework for PFM, and b) PFM in the Local Government Reform Programme. Funding of central level PFM activities will use the GoT s standard financial management system, the Medium Term Expenditure Framework and the Integrated Financial Management System. A shift towards a sector-wide approach through a PFM basket funding arrangement is eventually foreseen. PFM will be mainstreamed into the District Development Planning process. At district level, depending on the readiness and capacity of each specific district, funding will either be channelled through the standard GoT system or be provided as direct funding following district budget lines. The indicative budget distribution is: 20% to central level, 30% to district level, and 50% to community level. The PFM Component also includes provision for international technical assistance including a PFM Facilitation Adviser who for the first year will be attached to the EPU/FBD to support the national PFM Co-ordinator during the mobilisation phase and the development and implementation of the National Framework for PFM. It is expected that after the first year the adviser may be attached to the PO-RALG to coordinate and monitor the support for the decentralized implementation of PFM activities in 4 regions and the selected districts by developing the capacities of existing structures and statutory committees within the RASs and District Councils. The adviser will be responsible for developing horizontal and vertical reporting and monitoring mechanisms to strengthen linkages between FBD and PO-RALG at all levels. A PFM Financial Management Adviser will be attached to the Agricultural SPS (Phase II) to develop a PFM financial management system in the context of the requirements of both the MTEF and the LGRP. These functions will be developed in coordination with and under the supervision of the ASPS financial management adviser. Additional synergies and viii

10 collaboration with the ASPS will also be pursued in Iringa and Mbeya Regions. A reputable national accounting/auditing firm may also be sub-contracted to provide financial management training services in the selected districts and other financial management support functions. Additional Danida inputs comprise transport, equipment and materials, training, workshops and field visits, support for PFM service provision, applied collaborative PFM research and development, a pool of short-term TA and operational costs. The major assumptions are that (1) GoT continues to provide policy, legislative, strategic and fiscal support for PFM over the next decade (2) LGRP will result in a progressive strengthening of Regional Administrative Secretariats and District Councils through the devolution of both human and fiscal resources (3) PFM can demonstrably reduce poverty and improve livelihoods (4) PFM results in the sustainable management of forest and woodland resources, and (5) Women, the poor and other disadvantaged groups will be involved in PFM planning and management including the negotiated sharing of benefits. The key risks associated with implementation of the PFM Component are the: (1) HIV/AIDS pandemic, (2) Restructuring and multiple transitions confronting the GoT at all levels, (3) Reticence to change organisational cultures and management styles at all levels of government, (4) Continued use and/or expropriation of forest and woodland areas outside the network of PFM areas by external groups, (5) Macro-economic instability and/or the vagaries of climate, and (6) Forest revenue collection and retention schemes are not reformed effectively. ix

11 1 INTRODUCTION In 1993 as follow-up to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the Danish Parliament decided to establish the Environment, Peace and Stability Facility (EPSF), to strengthen efforts towards combating global environment problems. In 1995 Tanzania was selected as one of the countries to benefit from the EPSF, and from a number of projects were approved for funding. A framework document entitled Environment Support Programme (ESP) for Tanzania was approved in 2000 for the period It has the following development objective: Improved and environmentally sustainable use and management of Tanzania s diverse natural resources and the urban environment contributing to the maintenance and development of sustainable livelihoods especially among poor rural and urban communities. This conforms to the Government of Tanzania s (GoT s) overriding concerns of alleviating poverty and reducing environmental degradation as specified in i.a. Vision 2025 (1997), the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (2000) and the National Environmental Action Plan (1994). The ESP framework is intended to facilitate and support action at the decentralised level and related institutional structures at the national level. Support is directed at two main areas: a) natural resources management, including sustainable management of forests, woodlands and wetlands and b) urban environment. Danida currently supports Participatory Forest Management (PFM) activities through the ESP in Iringa District (MEMA projects) and in Lindi and Kilwa Districts (UTUMI project). International long-term technical assistance (TA) is also deployed at the national level in support of implementation of PFM. In addition, Danida supports two related communitybased resource management projects being implemented in Morogoro Rural District (WCST project in partnership with the Danish Ornithological Society) and in Morogoro and Coast Regions (Wami-Mbiki project in partnership with the Danish Hunters Association). The future Danida support to PFM in Tanzania will be implemented through a PFM Component under the ESP and stand-alone projects will gradually be phased out. In June 2001, a Danida consultant participated in a GoT/World Bank (WB) technical mission for the Tanzania Forest Conservation and Management Project (TFCMP). The consultant concluded that the PFM Component originally prepared as an integral part of the TFCMP was suitable for Danida support and fully in accordance with Danida policies and priorities for environmental support to Tanzania. A Danida team subsequently participated in the GoT/WB TFCMP Appraisal Mission in October 2001 to assess the feasibility of Danida support to the Participatory Forest Management and the Eastern Arc components of the TFCMP. The team found that the basic aim of the PFM component, i.e. to promote PFM on a large scale in Tanzania, was valid and a high priority for the GoT. However, the team also found that there was a need to shift the 1

12 focus of support to PFM away from the central government level and to place greater empahsis on local level implementation in order to be consistent with on-going civil service, public sector and local government reforms in Tanzania. It was also deemed necessary to put more emphasis on the mobilisation and capacity building of civil society stakeholders to ensure effective expansion of PFM over a wider geographical area. The mission recommended that Danida support for PFM be provided within the ESP framework. An agreement in principle of support to PFM was subsequently reached between the GoT and Danida. Following the Danida team s visit in October 2001 a Process Co-ordination Group (PCG) 1 was set up. The PCG met regularly during the period 5 November 2001 to 20 March PCG discussions included a review of the TFCMP Project Implementation Manual 2 and the agreement in principle for Danida to fund the PFM sub-component of the project. 3 which provided the basis to draft a national framework for implementation of PFM. 4 PCG discussions were documented in minutes from meetings and stakeholder consultations, as well as in specific issues papers prepared by consultants. 5 A team of Process Consultants assisted the PCG and monitored progress of the process, facilitated stakeholder workshops and meetings, and were ultimately responsible for the preparation of a draft PFM Component Document submitted to Danida (Copenhagen) on 28 June A Danida team visited Tanzania during the period August 2002 to pre-appraise the draft PFM Component Document. The team reaffirmed the potential for PFM in Tanzania but at the same time highlighted a number of constraints to implementation. 6 The preparation of the revised PFM Component Document was based on extensive consultations with PFM stakeholders at national, regional, district, ward, village, sub-village and resource user group levels and constitutes the ultimate outcome of the pre-appraisal process. A list of documents consulted during the preparation of the Participatory Forest Management Component Document is presented in Appendix 8. 1 The Process Coordination Group (PCG) was established to monitor and guide the formulation of the PFM Component. It comprised members representing the Forestry and Beekeeping Division, the Royal Danish Embassy, the Presidents Office-Regional Administration and Local Government (attended one PCG meeting) and the World Bank office in Dar es Salaam (two PCG meetings). 2 TFCMP Working Paper 2: Improving Service Delivery for Community-Based Woodland Management, April Minutes of negotiations. Tanzania Forest Conservation and Management Project. 12 December 2001 (p. 5). 4 Framework for support to Participatory Forest Management, April Process documents, Process Action Plans, activity schedules, minutes of PCG meetings, various background papers, and summaries of meetings, field visits, and workshops were compiled in a voluminous White Paper on the Process Leading to the PFM Component Document (Danida, May 2002: Annex 1). 6 Details are presented in the Debriefing Note from the Danida Pre-appraisal of support to Participatory Forest Management presented and discussed in Dar es Salaam on 30 August

13 2 VISIONS, OPPORTUNITIES AND BARRIERS 2.1 Vision 2025 The principal vision of the GoT is to alleviate the widespread poverty in Tanzanian society by improving socio-economic opportunities, good governance, transparency, and by improving public sector performance. An appropriate balance between public and private sector institutions is emphasised. Vision 2025 s overall development goal specifically includes reference to: a sustainable development endeavour, on inter-generation equity basis, such that the present generation derives benefits from the rational use of natural resources of the country without compromising the needs of future generations. In addition, the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, 2000) recognises that poverty is largely a rural phenomenon. The PRSP also recognises the dependence of poor communities on natural resources, and in particular forest products such as charcoal, honey, wild fruits and firewood, both for income generation and for household consumption. Forestry is not recognised as a priority sector in the PRSP. There is, however, an increasing understanding of the important role forest and woodland resources play, both directly and indirectly, in supporting livelihoods and providing income for the rural poor. Recent studies in Tanzania (Monela et al., 2000) point to forest-related income providing a large share, often more than agriculture, of rural cash income in agricultural households. 7 The National Environmental Policy (1997) emphasises the clear cause-and-effect relationship between poverty and environmental degradation, and stresses the need for sectoral policies to address poverty issues by taking into account the need for sustainable resource exploitation. It is expected that environmental concerns will also be addressed in the context of the Agriculture Sector Development Strategy (ASDS) and the Rural Development Strategy, which are still being developed by the GoT. 2.2 Government reform programmes 8 Public sector reforms in Tanzania aim to improve the delivery of public services to citizens. The number of GoT employees was reduced from in 1992 to in The Civil Service Department is now focusing on seven inter-linked reform components: organisation and efficiency, pay reforms, personnel control and management, capacity building, local government reforms, retrenchment and redeployment. The Public Service Reform Programme (PSRP) and the Local Government Reform Programme (LGRP) are both of particular importance to the Participatory Forest Management Component. The PSRP is a 7 These findings are similar to the results of studies on the importance of miombo woodlands in sustaining rural livelihoods in Zimbabwe (Campbell et al, 2001). 8 See Therkildsen, 1999 In: Good Governance and Decentralisation. Public Sector Reforms in Developing Countries Villadsen (Ed.) (1999) 3

14 continuation of the Civil Service reforms initiated in the 1980s, and aims to build capacity for, and thus improve the quality of, service delivery in the public sector. This encompasses the creation of Executive Agencies. 9 The Forestry and Beekeeping Division and the Civil Service Department are currently planning the establishment of the Tanzania Forest Service. This will offer an opportunity to streamline core service delivery through greater efficiency, improved quality and reduced public expenditure. Many centrally managed functions are in the process of being delegated to districts, communities, the private sector or other appropriate nongovernmental structures. The LGRP promotes the phased introduction of decentralized governance with the aim of improving quality, effectiveness and efficiency of service delivery by increasing accountability and giving greater control over resource allocation and management to the local government authorities (see Box 2.1 below). The LGRP is built on the vision in the Local Government Reform Agenda summarised as local government authorities (LGAs) will be multi-sectoral entities, largely autonomous, democratically elected and governed and deriving their legitimacy from the duties they render to their localities. Box 1: Local Government Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act (No. 6, 1999) Part VIIA Functions of the Central Government in relation to Local Government Relations with Central Government. In relation to the powers and functions of district authorities conferred by this Act, the government shall: a) facilitate the exercise of those powers and the discharge of those functions in a manner that gives due recognition to the autonomy of local government b) formulate a national policy and regulatory framework for the local government system c) co-ordinate and monitor the performance of local government authorities for compliance with national policies, guidelines and standards d) develop policies and provide a regulatory framework to ensure that the district councils, lead development agencies in their areas of jurisdiction in the proper execution and implementation of those policies e) provide the necessary technical support or assistance to district councils for the development of respective sectors in the districts f) assist in work for the implementation of decisions and resolutions of district councils which affect the development of their respective sectors and central government shall have due regard to the need to recognise and enhance the role of local government authorities in the provision of services and supervision of development activities within their respective areas. 9 Executive Agencies are government organisations established to perform essential public functions. They are to be individually designed as a function of the services that are to be provided and are intended to operate at arms length from their parent ministries. 4

15 Implementation of the LGRP is proceeding much slower than planned. Thirty-eight district councils have been supported through a common basket fund for LGRP Action Plans. District Councils will eventually be able to determine own staffing (presently technical staff are seconded from line ministries), and have a direct say even in the employment of the District Executive Director. No minimum staffing levels have been set and staffing and finance for the health and education sectors have been made a general priority. There is no systematic support provided through Block Grants for forestry, natural resource management or the environment in District Council budgets. 2.3 Policies and Laws supporting Participatory Forest Management A number of new policies, legislation and reform programmes have contributed to the emergence of an enabling environment for Participatory Forest Management and other community-based natural resource management activities in Tanzania. The Land Policy, Land Act and Village Land Act Land tenure issues are crucial to PFM. The National Land Policy (1995) set the direction for land reform and the new land legislation includes significant changes to the way land can be acquired, held and transferred. The land reform distinguishes between land under the authority of central government and land now under the authority of village governments. Elected village councils are now the managers of village communal land and charged with the supervision of adjudication and registration of Village Land within their respective village spheres, including forests and woodlands. Consistent with the National Land Policy (1995), the provisions of the Land Act (1999) and the Village Land Act (1999) and related regulations recognize existing customary rights in land and allows for registration of these rights. The Land Acts also acknowledges that customary land rights are practiced in different ways by different ethnic groups all over Tanzania (Village Land Act, 1999, Section 20: 97-98). Customary rights as provided for in the new laws specifically include the right of households, groups, or communities to hold commons (such as forests) as registered common property. The Land Policy also specifically addresses the question of gender, viz., The right of every woman to acquire, hold, use and deal with land shall to the same extent and subject to the same restriction be treated as the right of any man. (The Land Act, 1999: 26) This gender equality principle is further reflected in relation to land applications (p. 107), and the assignment of customary rights by villagers (p. 141). Women s customary land rights like those of men are recognised by the The Village Land Act. There are also specific provisions that prevent discrimination against women and other vulnerable groups, viz.: 5

16 Any rule of customary law and any decision taken in respect of land held under customary tenure, whether in respect of land held individually or communally, shall have regard to the customs, traditions, and practices of the community concerned to the extend that they are in accordance with fundamental principles of the National Land Policy and of any other written law and subject to the foregoing provisions of this subsection, that the rule of customary law or any such decision in respect of land held under customary tenure shall be void and inoperative and shall not be given effect to by any village council or village assembly of any person or body of persons exercising any authority over village land or in respect of any court or other body, to the extent to which it denies women, children or persons with disability lawful access to ownership, occupation or use of any such land." 10 The Forest Policy and Forest Act The GoT approved the National Forest Policy in It contains a number of statements in support of PFM (see Box 2 below). The National Forest Policy aims to create an enabling environment for the development of the forestry sector by decentralising responsibilities for forest management to local communities and district councils, separating the normative and service delivery functions of the GoT through the establishment of an Executive Agency in the Box 2: Forest Policy Statements (PS) in Support of Participatory Forest Management PS 3: To enable participation of all stakeholders in forest management and conservation, joint management agreements, with appropriate user rights and benefits, will be established. The agreement will be between the central government, specialised executive agencies, private sector or local governments as appropriate in each case and organised local communities or other organisations of people living adjacent to the forest. PS 5: To enable sustainable management of forests on public lands, clear ownership for all forests and trees on those lands will be defined. The allocation of forests and their management responsibility to villages, private individuals or to the government will be promoted. Central, local and village governments may demarcate and establish new forest reserves. PS 6: Village forest reserves will be managed by the village governments or other entities designated by village governments for this purpose. They will be managed for production and/or protection based on sustainable management objectives defined for each forest reserve. The management will be based on forest management plans. PS 7: Private and community forestry activities will be supported through harmonised extension service and financial incentives. The extension package and incentives will be designed in a gender sensitive manner. Extension services and financial incentives will be provided in support of forestry activities per se. 10 The Village Land Act, 1999: Part IV: Village Lands A: Management and Administration, Law applicable to customary right of occupancy:

17 forest sector (Tanzania Forest Service), commercialising or privatising the management of the forest plantations, and promoting greater involvement of the private sector and civil society in sustainable forest management. The Forest Act (No. 7, June 2002) provides the legal framework to implement the National Forest Policy. The Act aims to encourage and facilitate the active involvement of Tanzanian citizens in the sustainable planning, management, use and conservation of forest resources through the development of rights and responsibilities to use and manage forest resources at the lowest possible level (see Box 3 below). The Forest Act supports PFM by enabling local communities to declare and ultimately gazette Village, Group or Private Forest Reserves. It provides for three categories of Community-based Forest Management (CBFM): (a) Village Land Forest Reserves (VLFR) managed by the entire community, (b) Community Forest Reserves (CFR) managed by a particular designated group in the community, and (c) Private Forests (PF) managed by individual designated households. The Forest Act also provides for registration and other procedures through which villages, groups or individuals may secure local jurisdiction over forests or take on management functions in Central and Local Government Forest Reserves through the establishment of Joint Forest Management (JFM) Agreements with the appropriate government authority. Box 3: Objectives of the Forest Act encourage and facilitate the active citizen involvement in the sustainable planning, management, use and conservation of forest resources through the development of individual and community rights; ensure ecosystem stability through conservation of forest biodiversity, water catchments and soil fertility; delegate responsibility for the management of forest resources to the lowest possible level of local management consistent with national policies; ensure the sustainable supply of forest products and services by maintaining sufficient forest area under efficient, effective and economical management; enhance the quality and improve the marketability of forest products and regulate their export; promote coordination and cooperation between the forest sector and other agencies and bodies in the public and private sectors; facilitate greater public awareness of the cultural, economic and social benefits of conserving and increasing sustainable forest cover by developing programs in training, research and public education; and enable Tanzania to play a full part in contributing towards and benefiting from international efforts and measures to protect and enhance global biodiversity. 7

18 Neither the Forest Policy nor the Forest Act is very gender specific. The Forest Policy only has two statements out of 41 that are directly concerned with gender issues: Private and community forestry activities will be separated through harmonized extension services and financial incentives. The extension package and incentives will be designed in a gender sensitive manner (PS 7) and Local communities will be encouraged to participate in forest activities. Clearly defined forest land and tree tenure rights will be instituted for local communities including both men and women. (PS 39) The Forest Act has almost no reference to gender issues except that it specifies gender representation in committees to manage VLFRs and CFRs. As part of the implementation of the PFM component an important task will be to develop more specific guidelines as to how to approach gender issues. Related policy and legislative frameworks In addition to the Forest, Land and Village Land Acts, the implementation of PFM activities will also be influenced by other related policy and legislative frameworks. These include i.a. the National Wildlife Policy and draft Wildlife Management Area Regulations, the new Beekeeping Act, the Public Procurement Act (No. 3, 2001) and relevant legislation from the agricultural sector. Furthermore, the drafting of a new environmental management bill will provide a crucial instrument to ensure vertical and horizontal integration of forestry activities into overall framework for environmental management in Tanzania. 2.4 Participatory Forest Management in Tanzania What is Participatory Forest Management? Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is a strategy to achieve sustainable forest management by promoting the management or co-management of forest and woodland resources 11 by the communities living closest to the resources. PFM has become a colloquial term during the evolution of ideas and practices about community-based forest management. 12 It is characterised by the forest-local communities assuming owner/user rights and management deciison power (devolution) over the forest resources. There is no exact definition of PFM but it is conceptually part of an overall rural development strategy which aims to improve rural livelihoods and thereby help to reduce poverty whilst at the same time protecting the environment and promoting gender-equality and democracy. 11 The term forests is here used to denote the different types of forests and woodlands in Tanzania, i.e. moist montane forest, mangrove and coastal forest, and savanna woodlands (predominantly miombo woodlands). 12 The term PFM is synonymous with the generic term Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) according to the definition of the latter in the GoT s Community-Based Forest Management Guidelines (FBD 2001). However, in the present document the term CBFM is used to denote community management of still unreserved forests in Village or General Lands while the term Joint Forest Management (JFM) is used to denote co-management regimes in respect of government forest reserves (National Forest Reserves and/or Local Authority Forest Reserves). 8

19 The Statutory Basis for Participatory Forest Management Community-based management of forest resources is founded on the authority of village governments to set aside areas for forestry within their village land. Such areas must be on common land, i.e. land owned by the community as a whole. An environment or natural resources committee appointed by the Village Assembly or the Village Council may manage such forests on behalf of the entire village. The legal status of the management plan vis à vis exclusion of external interests in the forest as well as internal compliance with management rules and regulations can be enhanced through passing a related Village by-law and the forest may eventually be gazetted as a Village Land Forest Reserve (VLFR). Subject to approval by the Village Council, smaller groups including sub-villages, women groups, ethnic groups, etc. may manage forest resources on village lands, being part of or separate from village land forests, as Community Forests. On request, or if considered to be in the public interest, the Director of forestry may assist such groups in forming themselves with the purpose of applying to manage a forest as a community forest reserve (Forest Act 2002, s ). Two or more villages may decide to jointly manage a forest resource that covers parts of their respective territory (Forest Act 2002, s. 38). A forest type on village lands not specifically treated in the Forest Act (2002) is sacred groves. These serve cultural and religious purposes and are often associated with local beliefs on rainfall patterns and other factors affecting the well-being of the community. Traditionally, products other than medicinal plants are rarely extracted from these forests and they have been protected through a combination of local rule enforcement and local beliefs on supernatural punishment of trespassers (for example, the masiyeto traditional forests in Rungwe District, Mbeya Region). Private woodlots established on village or general lands through a right of occupancy or a lease have a long history in Tanzania. These are either individually managed isolated plots in the agricultural landscape or larger forested areas that are sub-divided into plots managed shoulder-to-shoulder by individuals. Private forests larger than 50 ha must be managed in accordance with a management plan that takes the views of, e.g. local communities and local government officials, into consideration and which must then be endorsed by the Director of FBD (Forest Act 2002, s. 15). The significance of private wood lots and trees on farmland in relation to PFM is that they form an integral part of rural livelihood strategies both in terms of subsistence and commercial production which wholly or partially substitutes the exploitation of national or local government forest resources. Joint Forest Management (JFM) is based on the authority of the National and Local Governments to share management rights and responsibilities over their forest reserves and plantations with forest adjacent communities. The division of rights and responsibilities, including sharing of costs and benefits, is subject to negotiations in each specific case and detailed in a written joint forest management agreement (Forest Act 2002, s.16). Accordingly, JFM represents a contractual relationship between the relevant government institutions and 9

20 local communities. A local community may become the designated manager with extensive management authority of a specified area within a government forest reserve, known as a Village Forest Management Area (VFMA), or it may be co-manager of part of the government forest reserve together with the statutory authority. Ownership of the forest resource under JFM rests with the respective governments, and JFM agreements are subject to renewal/renegotiation at least every five years in accordance with the general planning cycle for national and local government forest reserves (Forest Act 2002, s. 13.7). Objectives of Participatory Forest Management PFM has a dual objective of improving rural livelihoods and forest conservation through a strategy of power sharing between local communities and statutory agencies vis á vis the management of forest resources. Backed by the legal framework provided by the Forest Act (2002), PFM aims to address the following two main problems as identified in the Forest Policy (1998, s and s ): 1. The low capacity of government institutions to manage central and local government forest reserves to meet the growing demands for forest products and services, which has resulted in destruction, degradation and conversion to other land uses of these forest resources. 2. Conversion of unreserved forests on communal and public lands (mostly on village lands) to other land uses due to previously unclear land and tree tenure, particularly for indigenous trees. This has undermined economic incentives for sustainable forest management by local communities and, hence, resulted in poor motivation to plant and care for forests and trees. Socially, economically and environmentally sound forest management plans are considered the main vehicle to secure sustainable protection and utilisation of forest resources. With the exception of private forests smaller than 50 ha, management plans are compulsory for all forest types irrespective of management arrangements (Forest Act, 2002, s ). As in many other countries where PFM is practised, it is against this trade-off that the national and local governments share authority over forest resources with local communities. Accordingly, the Director of Forestry or local governments may for a specified period take over the management of forests that are under JFM or CBFM, if these are deemed to be mismanaged (Forest Act 2002, s. 8 and 41-48). Experiences with Participatory Forest Management in Tanzania Over the past two decades community forestry and participatory forest management activities have been tried and tested in different parts of Tanzania. These activities have been almost exclusively donor-supported projects in discrete areas and to date, little effort has been made to co-ordinate and summarise lessons learned. The following observations constitute some provisional generic lessons learned from approaches to PFM. The local and central government institutions do not presently have the capacity, financial means or implementation mechanisms to adequately support PFM at a larger scale. 10