N A T I O N A L C O U N C I L F O R A I R A N D S T R E A M I M P R O V E M E N T

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1 ncasi N A T I O N A L C O U N C I L F O R A I R A N D S T R E A M I M P R O V E M E N T LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF NORTH AMERICAN PRINTING AND WRITING PAPER PRODUCTS FINAL REPORT prepared for American Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA) Forest Products Association of Canada (FPAC) by National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. (NCASI) Research Triangle Park, NC June 18, 2010

2 For more information about this research, contact: Reid Miner Vice President, Sustainable Manufacturing NCASI P.O. Box Research Triangle Park, NC (919) Kirsten Vice Vice President, Canadian Operations NCASI P.O. Box 1036, Station B Montreal, QC H3B 3K5 (514) kvice@ncasi.org Caroline Gaudreault Senior Research Scientist NCASI P.O. Box 1036, Station B Montreal, QC H3B 3K5 (514) cgaudreault@ncasi.org Jay Unwin NCASI Fellow rd Ave. SW Lakewood, WA (253) junwin@ncasi.org National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. (NCASI) Life cycle assessment of North American printing and writing paper products. Unpublished Report. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc by the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc.

3 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS # pound, measure of basis weight adst AF&PA bbl bdst BKMP BOD Air-dried short ton (10% water) American Forest and Paper Association Barrel Bone-dry short ton (@ 0% water) Bleached kraft market pulp Biochemical oxygen demand CORRIM Consortium for Research on Renewable Industrial Materials COD DFO DIP DQI FPAC GCC Chemical oxygen demand Distillate fuel oil Deinked pulp Data quality indicator Forest Products Association of Canada Ground calcium carbonate gsm Gram per square meter (g/m 2 ) HWD ISO IUR LCA LCED LCI LCIA Hardwood International Organization for Standardization Inventory Update Reporting Life cycle assessment Life cycle energy demand Life cycle inventory Life cycle impact assessment xii

4 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations LDPE LPG MCF MDIP mdst MJ NPRI OCC ONP OMG PVA PCC PCS PM RFO st SWD TRACI TRI UCF Low density polyethylene Liquefied petroleum gas Methane correction factor Market deinked pulp machine-dry short ton 5% water) Megajoule National Pollutant Release Inventory (Canada) Old corrugated containers Old newspapers Old magazines Polyvinyl acetate (adhesive) Precipitated calcium carbonate Permit Compliance System Particulate matter Residual fuel oil Short ton Softwood Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts U.S. EPA Toxics Release Inventory Uncoated freesheet U.S. EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency VOC Volatile organic compounds xiii

5 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations Impact indicators AC CAR ECO EU FF GW NCAR OD RES SM AB PO Acidification Carcinogenics Ecotoxicity Eutrophication Fossil fuel depletion Global warming Non-carcinogenics Ozone depletion Respiratory effects Smog Abiotic depletion Photochemical oxidation xiv

6 Glossary GLOSSARY The main source for the definitions in this glossary is the ISO standard (ISO 2006b). Other references are specified at the end of the specific definitions. Allocation: Background processes: Basis weight: Chemical pulp: Chemithermomechanical pulp: CML method: Coated: Co-product: Partitioning the input or output flows of a process or a product system between the product system under study and one or more other product systems (ISO 2006b). Modeled processes influenced by measures taken in the foreground system (Tillman 2000); system or process for which secondary data are used (Guinee, Goree et al. 2002). Processes that are incidental to the production of the evaluated product and not included in those used to determine foreground (primary operations/processes) attributes. In this study this includes, for instance, the production of electricity, fuels and chemicals used in the production of the pulp and paper. Forest and printing operations are also included in the background processes. In the United States, the weight in pounds of 500 sheets of paper cut to a specified basic size. The basic size for writing paper is 17 in. x 22 in , which is approximately 1300 square feet. In most countries, the basis weight is expressed in grams per square meter (Kouris 2003). Pulp obtained by using both chemical and heat energy to dissolve the lignin bond between fibers in wood. The primary chemical processes are the sulfate (kraft), sulfite, and soda (Kouris 2003). Pulp produced from chemically impregnated wood chips, by means of pressurized refining at high consistencies (Kouris 2003). A European method for impact assessment from the Institute of Environmental Science of Leiden University (Netherlands). A term applied to paper and paperboard, the surface of which has been treated with clay or some other pigment and adhesive mixture, or other suitable material, to improve the finish with respect to printing quality, color, smoothness, opacity, or other surface properties. The term is also applied to lacquered and varnished papers (Kouris 2003). Any of two or more products coming from the same unit process or product system (ISO 2006b). xv

7 Glossary CPM database: Cradle-to-gate: Cradle-to-grave: Data quality indicator: EDIP: Equivalent: European Platform on LCA: Feedstock energy: Foreground system/process: Life cycle inventory database by the Center for Environmental Assessment of Product and Material Systems (Chalmers University, Sweden). Partial LCA model which includes the upstream part of a product life cycle, i.e., from raw material acquisition to the factory gate. Use and end-of-life stages are usually excluded from cradle-to-gate assessment. In this study, the gate is defined as end of the pulp and paper mill operations. Complete LCA model which includes the full product life cycle, i.e., from raw material acquisition through production, use, end-of-life treatment, recycling and final disposal. Indicator that addresses the different characteristics of data that relate to their ability to satisfy stated requirements. Environmental design of industrial products, a Danish impact assessment method. A measure used to compare different substances based on their relative contributions to a given impact category. Established by the European Commission to support the availability and exchange of consistent and quality-assured life cycle data. Heat of combustion of a raw material input that is not used as an energy source to a product system, expressed in terms of higher heating value or lower heating value (ISO 2006b). Process or the collection of processes on which measures may be taken concerning their selection or mode of operation as a result of decisions based on the study (Tillman 2000); a system or process for which sitespecific data are collected (Guinee et al. 2002).In this study, the foreground processes are those required for pulp and papermaking production processes. Freesheet: Paper free of mechanical wood pulp (Kouris 2003). ecoinvent/ecoinvent database: Function: A product of the Swiss Center for Life Cycle Inventories, the ecoinvent life cycle inventory database is a world-leading source of LCI data. ISO does not provide a formal definition for function. However, it states that the scope of an LCA shall clearly specify the functions (performance characteristics) of the system being studied. (ISO 2006b) xvi

8 Glossary Functional unit: Gate-to-gate: Life cycle energy demand: Quantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit (ISO 2006b). Partial LCA model which considers only one unit process of the product life cycle. Energy used throughout the life cycle of a good or service. In this study, the cumulative life cycle energy demand method was employed. Mechanical paper: Paper made in major part from mechanical wood pulp (Kouris 2003). Mechanical pulp: Methane correction factor: North America: Number of subsequent uses allocation procedure: A high-yield pulp produced from wood by a variety of mechanical pulping processes. It is characterized as a wood pulp with high lignin content. It is primarily suitable for printing grade papers, but can be used in other paper grades, like tissue, board, and fluffed pulps (Kouris 2003). The fraction of wastes that will decompose under aerobic conditions (prior to the conditions becoming anaerobic in the landfill (IPCC 2007). U.S. and Canada (unless otherwise specified). This method essentially allocates the environmental impacts of virgin paper production based on the number of subsequent uses of the recovered paper. It requires data estimating recovery rates and process yields for the entire cascade. Open-loop recycling: For the purpose of this study is considered to be recycling of material generated in one product system into a different product system. Primary data: Product system: Data specific to the processes studied. Collection of unit processes with elementary and product flows, performing one or more defined functions, and which models the life cycle of a product (ISO 2006b). Ream of office paper: A sealed or banded package containing the required number of sheets. In this study, a dream of office paper is 500 pages with a sheet size of cm x cm (8.5 in. x 11 in.). ReCiPE: Reference flow: European method for impact assessment. Measure of the outputs from processes in a given product system required to fulfill the function expressed by the functional unit. xvii

9 Glossary Renewable life cycle energy demand: Renewable resources: Secondary data: SimaPro LCA software: Thermomechanical pulp: TRACI: In this study, life cycle energy demand was characterized using ecoinvent s cumulative life energy demand method (Hischier and Weidema 2009). Under renewable energy, this method includes biomass, wind, solar, geothermal and water energy. Natural resources that are capable of regeneration. Renewable resources can essentially never be exhausted, usually because they are continuously produced (e.g., tree biomass, fresh water, and fish). Renewable resources are those natural resources that are naturally replenished, but whose continued supply depends, in many cases, on proper management (e.g., tree biomass, fresh water, fish) ( Data from databases or literature or estimated data. SimaPro is one of the most widely used LCA software. It is used in managing and editing the data required in an LCA, to structure the modeled scenario and calculate the environmental indicator results. A mechanical pulp produced from wood chips, where the wood particles are softened by pre-heating in a pressurized vessel at temperatures not exceeding the glass transition point of the lignin, before a pressurized primary refining stage (Kouris 2003). Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts, a U.S. impact assessment (LCIA) method. Uncoated freesheet: An uncoated paper used for printing, writing, and related applications, and made almost wholly from chemical wood pulps (Kouris 2003). Uncoated mechanical paper: Unit process: USEtox: Mechanical paper that has not been pigment coated (Smook 2001). Smallest element considered in the life cycle inventory analysis for which input and output data are quantified (ISO 2006b). The UNEP-SETAC toxicity model, with recommended characterization factors for human toxicity and freshwater ecotoxicity in life cycle impact assessment. xviii

10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES.1 BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES The American Forest and Paper Association (AF&PA) and the Forest Products Association of Canada (FPAC) have commissioned a study of the life cycle for four North American grades of printing and writing (P&W) papers. The specific products that have been examined are 1) a ream of office paper made of uncoated freesheet, 2) a telephone directory made of primarily of uncoated mechanical paper, 3) a catalog made primarily of coated freesheet, and 4) a magazine made primarily of coated mechanical paper. Although this study comprises entire LCAs, cradleto-gate inventory results for the four grades of paper have also been prepared to facilitate studies of other products made from these grades. The goal of this study is to characterize the potential environmental life cycle impacts associated with these four industry average P&W paper products manufactured in U.S. and Canada in 2006/ While the results of this study are valid for the average product investigated, the results may not be representative of specific products made of paper from specific mills because of mill-to-mill differences in performance. The results of LCA studies on paper from specific companies are unlikely to be the same as those for the industry average. This study complies with the ISO requirements. Note that the study does not compare products but in order to facilitate the use of the information in any future comparative studies, the study also complies with, to the appropriate extent, the ISO requirements regarding comparative assertions disclosed to the public 2. If LCA results are used for comparative assertions, the systems compared must be functionally equivalent, with any differences between analyzed systems being identified and reported. If the comparison is intended to be disclosed to the public, ISO requires that interested parties conduct an additional peer review. The study and report have been reviewed by an external peer review panel. The panelists comments and the responses to those comments have been included in this report, in accordance with ISO standards. The panel consisted of the following individuals. Martha Stevenson, Chairperson Private Consultant to the public interest with ten years of experience in sustainability, environmental management, packaging and materials recovery. Led the development of the Design Guidelines for Sustainable Packaging and the COMPASS software used to compare the environmental impacts of package designs. Pascal Lesage Life cycle assessment consultant (formerly with Sylvatica), Associate Professor at École Polytechnique de Montréal [at the Inter-University Research Centre for the Life Cycle of Products, Processes and Services (CIRAIG) in Montreal]. 1 Using 2006 U.S. data and 2007 Canadian data, per currently available data from AF&PA and FPAC, respectively. 2 Since no products are actually compared, some requirements cannot be met. xix

11 Dale Phenicie, Environmental Affairs Consulting Consultant with 35 years of experience in environmental protection and process consulting for the forest products industry. Has served on several U.S. EPA Task Forces dealing with water quality issues and authored several AF&PA Environmental, Health and Safety/Sustainability reports. The critical review in no way implies that the panel members endorse the results of the LCA study, nor that they endorse the assessed products. It ensures that the study, among other requirements, was carried on according to the provisions of the ISO standards. ES.2 NORTH AMERICAN P&W PAPER PRODUCTS SYSTEMS The four products investigated in this study are described in Table ES-1. The products were selected to be representative of major end uses for four different grades of paper: uncoated freesheet, coated freesheet, uncoated mechanical paper and coated mechanical paper. More detail regarding the four grades of paper and the associated product systems is provided in subsequent sections. Characteristics Paper Table ES-1. Description of P&W Paper Products Ream of office paper Uncoated freesheet Paper Product Catalog Telephone directory Magazine Coated freesheet (CF) Uncoated mechanical paper Coated mechanical paper Basis weight 20# (75 gsm 3 ) 45# (68 gsm) 22# (36 gsm) 38# (57 gsm) Number of pages 500 sheets 72 pages (36 sheets, CF) 1200 pages (600 sheets) 120 pages (60 sheets) Format 8 ½ x 11 8 x ½ x 10 ½ x 2 8 x 10.5 Cover pages/ Packaging Printing Paper wrap N/A 2 covers (CF), 60# (90 gsm) 64% offset, 36% rotogravure 2 covers (bleached board), 123# (200 gsm) Offset printing 2 covers (CF), 60# (90 gsm) 64% offset, 36% rotogravure ES.2.1 OFFICE PAPER (MADE FROM UNCOATED FREESHEET) Almost all office paper included in this study is produced by U.S. mills using a variety of pulp sources. About 4% of the fiber needed to produce the office paper comes from recovered fiber 4, primarily market deinked pulp (MDIP), with the balance being supplied by bleached kraft pulp. Most of the bleached kraft pulp used in uncoated freesheet is produced on site although bleached kraft market pulp (produced primarily in Canada and U.S.) is also used. No separate converting operations are included in the office paper system because the operations required 3 Basis weight is expressed as as is (5% water) weights in grams per square meter (gsm). 4 The scope of the study addressed the average paper produced in North America, so the paper modeled in the LCA contains the average amounts of recovered fiber. The results would change if the average recovered fiber content changed. xx

12 to convert paper rolls to finished product (i.e., cutting and packaging) are included in the operations performed at the paper mill. Based on U.S. EPA data for office-type papers, it has been assumed that, after use, 71.8% of used office paper is recovered for recycling, 5.2% is burned for energy and 23.0% is sent to landfills. By recovering 71.8% of used office paper, this product system supplies recovered fiber to other systems (subsequent uses of the fiber). In this study, it was assumed that paper is used and disposed of in the U.S. ES.2.2 CATALOG (MADE FROM COATED FREESHEET) All coated freesheet included in this study is produced by U.S. mills using a variety of pulp sources. About 5% of the fiber needed to produce the catalog comes from recovered fiber 5, primarily market deinked pulp (MDIP) and old newspapers (ONP), with the balance being supplied by bleached kraft pulp. Most of the bleached kraft pulp is produced on-site but market pulp (produced primarily in Canada and U.S.) is also used. Life cycle environmental impacts pertaining to converting operations required to convert the coated freesheet into a catalog (primarily printing) are included in this study. These were modeled based on data from a European study (see body of report for complete citation) adapted for the U.S. electricity grid (i.e., the printing is assumed to occur in the U.S.). Based on U.S. EPA data for other commercial printing, it has been assumed that, after use, 32.7% of used catalogs is recovered for recycling, 12.5% is burned for energy and 54.8% is sent to landfills. By recovering 32.7% of used catalogs, this product system supplies recovered fiber to other systems (subsequent uses of the fiber). In this study, it was assumed that paper is used and disposed of in U.S. ES.2.3 TELEPHONE DIRECTORY (MADE FROM UNCOATED MECHANICAL PAPER) About 20% of North American uncoated mechanical paper is produced by U.S. mills while 80% is produced in Canada. About 20% of the fiber needed to produce directory paper comes from recovered fiber 6 (a mix of MDIP, ONP, old magazines and mixed papers), with the balance being supplied by bleached mechanical pulp (produced and purchased) and some chemical pulp (produced on site and/or purchased). Life cycle environmental impacts pertaining to converting operations required to convert the uncoated mechanical paper into a catalog (primarily printing) are included in this study. These were modeled based on data from a European study (see body of report for complete citation) adapted for the U.S. electricity grid (i.e., the printing is assumed to occur in the U.S.). According to U.S. EPA, 19.1% of used directories is recovered for recycling, 15.0% is burned for energy and 65.9% is sent to landfills. By recovering 19.1% of used directories, this product system supplies recovered fiber to other systems (subsequent uses of the fiber). In this study, it was assumed that paper is used and disposed of in the U.S. 5 The scope of the study addressed the average paper produced in North America, so the paper modeled in the LCA contains the average amounts of recovered fiber. The results would change if the average recovered fiber content changed. 6 Ibid. xxi

13 ES.2.4 MAGAZINES (MADE FROM COATED MECHANICAL PAPER) About 80% of North American coated mechanical paper is produced by U.S. mills while 20% is produced in Canada. About 2% of the fiber needed to produce uncoated mechanical paper comes from recovered fiber 7, primarily ONP used to produce deinked pulp on site, with the balance being supplied by bleached mechanical pulp and some kraft pulp (produced on site and/or purchased). Life cycle environmental impacts pertaining to converting operations required to convert the coated mechanical paper into a magazine (primarily printing) are included in this study. These were modeled based on data from a European study (see body of report for complete citation) adapted for the U.S. electricity grid (i.e., the printing is assumed to occur in the U.S.). According to U.S. EPA, 38.6% of used magazines is recovered for recycling, 11.4% is burned for energy and 50.0% is sent to landfills. By recovering 38.6% of used magazines, this product system supplies recovered fiber to other systems (subsequent uses of the fiber). In this study, it was assumed that paper is used and disposed of in the U.S. ES.3 LIFE CYCLE STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS EMPLOYED The functional units 8 defined for this study are presented in Table ES-2. Paper Product Office paper Catalog Telephone directory Magazine Table ES-2. Function, Functional Unit and Reference Flows Function * Functional unit * Reference flow Production, delivery and end-of-life management of office paper Production, delivery, use and end-of-life management of catalogs Production, delivery, use and end-of-life management of telephone directory Production, delivery, use and end-of-life management of catalogs The production in the U.S. and Canada, delivery to an average U.S. customer, use and final disposal of 1 standard ream of office paper The production in the U.S. and Canada, delivery to an average U.S. customer, use and final disposal of standard catalog The production in the U.S. and Canada, delivery to an average U.S. customer, use and final disposal of a standard telephone directory The production in the U.S. and Canada, delivery to an average U.S. customer, use and final disposal of a standard magazine The different process outputs for the production of 1 ream of office paper (containing 2.15 kg/4.73 lb of uncoated freesheet, dry weight) The different process outputs for the production of 1 catalog (containing kg/0.297 lb of coated freesheet, dry weight)) The different process outputs for the production of 1 telephone directory (containing 1.18 kg/2.60 dry lb of uncoated mechanical paper and kg/ dry lb of bleached board, dry weight) The different process outputs for the production of 1 magazine (containing kg/0.388 lb of coated mechanical paper, and kg/ dry lb of coated freesheet, dry weight) *Function and functional unit assessed in this study are not necessarily suitable for comparative analyses. The system boundaries in the study include the entire life cycle of the paper product, starting in the forest and extending through manufacturing, use, recovery, and end-of-life (cradle-to- 7 The scope of the study addressed the average paper produced in North America, so the paper modeled in the LCA contains the average amounts of recovered fiber. The results would change if the average recovered fiber content changed. 8 ISO defines the functional unit as the quantified performance of the product system but not specify what performance is. Other authors define the functional unit as the quantification of a service provided by a product system. xxii

14 grave). Transport is also included. The data are from , or a date as close as possible to those years. Instead of applying cut-off criteria for data completeness, attempts have been made to be as comprehensive as possible. The data 10 for the study were obtained from the following sources. Most of the mill-level environmental and energy data for pulp and paper manufacturing were obtained from biennial surveys conducted by AF&PA and FPAC. Environmental data for some parameters were obtained from government databases. Data on the types and amounts of material inputs and outputs at pulp and paper mills producing P&W paper were obtained from the database of Fisher International. Printing data were obtained from a European study (see body of report for complete citation). Data and models for other aspects of the life cycle (e.g., for landfills) were obtained from a number of government sources, public life cycle databases (U.S. LCI and ecoinvent), and published studies. Where allocation was needed to address co-products, shared processes and open-loop recycling of recovered fiber, the allocation was done using what was considered to be the most suitable available method, with alternative methods being used in sensitivity analyses, as appropriate. For open-loop recycling of recovered fiber, the number of subsequent uses allocation approach, illustrated in ISO 14049, was used. The life cycle modeling and calculations were done in the SimaPro LCA software. Potential environmental impacts were characterized using the TRACI impact assessment method developed by U.S. EPA, with the CML (2001) method used in a sensitivity analysis. Impact indicator results were developed for global warming 11, acidification, respiratory effects, eutrophication, stratospheric ozone depletion, smog and fossil fuel depletion TRACI also includes impact categories related to emission of toxic substances (carcinogenics, noncarcinogenics, and ecotoxicity). Results were also developed for these categories. However, because of the uncertainty associated with those, the results are not presented in the executive summary. More details can be found in the body of the report. In addition, inventory results were developed for life cycle energy demand, water use, and solid waste generation. Note: The fossil fuel depletion indicator accounts for the fact that continued extraction and production of fossil fuels tend to consume the most economically recoverable reserves first so that continued extraction will become more energy intensive in the future. The fossil fuel 9 U.S. data from AF&PA are from 2006, while Canadian data from FPAC are from All mills making the grades under study and for which sufficient data were available, were included. 11 In accordance with accepted greenhouse gas accounting practices, biomass carbon and biomass-derived CO 2 were tracked separately from fossil fuel-derived CO 2 and other greenhouse gases in the LCI. The effects of biomass carbon on the atmosphere were characterized by calculating the changes in the stocks of stored carbon through the life cycle of the product (globally, the net change in total stocks of stored biomass carbon is mathematically equal to the net flow of biomass carbon to/from the atmosphere). 12 Name of all impact categories as defined in the TRACI method. 13 Results were also obtained for several toxicity-related indicators but the results proved to be highly imprecise and of uncertain significance, so they are not discussed in the executive summary. xxiii

15 depletion indicator is an attempt to estimate the incremental energy requirements per unit of consumption of fuel in the future compared to today s conditions. Impact assessment results are relative expressions and do not predict impacts, the exceeding of thresholds, safety margins, or risks and the following limitations should be considered when interpreting the results. The results have low spatial and temporal resolution, which means that LCA is not well suited to addressing impacts for which the severity is significantly affected by local conditions or the timing of releases (such as toxicity-related indicators), rather, they indicate the potential for such impacts to occur; The study does not examine every potentially relevant impact category. For instance, land use results are not presented in this report because impact assessment methodologies are still under development and inventory numbers are difficult to interpret without generally accepted impact assessment methodologies and could easily be misused; and There is uncertainty in modeling assumptions, data, and impact assessment. In addition, a series of sensitivity analyses (summarized in Table ES-3) was also performed to better understand the results. xxiv

16 Parameter analyzed Purchased electricity, fossil fuels burned at pulp and paper mill Pulp and paper mill releases Use of chemicals at pulp and paper mills End-of-life fate of used product Table ES-3. Summary of Sensitivity Analyses Change examined in sensitivity analysis Marginal variation in purchased electricity and fossil fuels (coal and natural gas) burned at pulp and paper mills. Marginal variation in releases of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides at pulp and paper mills. Marginal variations in sodium chlorate consumed and electricity required to produce offsite precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC), where applicable. Marginal variation in percentage of wastes going to landfill. VOC releases at printing operation Marginal variation in VOC releases at printing operations, where applicable. Data source for secondary data Data for hardwood Paper use and end-of-life location U.S. electricity consumption profile Electricity consumption profile for printing operations Recovery rate and allocation factor for virgin pulp production (number of uses) End-of-life Capital equipment exclusion Allocation factor for sawmills Allocation method for sold power Allocation method for electricity produced at landfills Approach for biogenic carbon LCIA method LCIA method Modeling almost all background processes with ecoinvent (instead of U.S. LCI database). CORRIM data used to model forest operations and chip production do not provide a data set for hardwood, and thus softwood data were used as a proxy. This sensitivity analysis studies the effect of this using another data source (ecoinvent). 50% of the end-of-life of paper occurs in Canada (instead of 100% in U.S.). It has been assumed that pulp and paper mills are purchasing their electricity from the average electricity grid for the state in which they are located. However, there are exchanges of electricity between different states. This analysis considers those exchanges by using the U.S. Interconnects (East, West, and Texas). Originally, the printing operations have been modeled using the U.S. electricity grid for printing operations. This sensitivity analysis looked at the effect of using the North American electricity grid. Increase in recovery rate: office paper from 72% to 85%, catalog from 33% to 50%, directory from 20% to 30%, magazine from 39% to 50%. When the recovery rate is increased, more burden is transferred to the subsequent uses assuming other systems will use the additional fiber (i.e., the burden is shared between more products). Increasing the recovery rate also decreases methane emissions from landfills. 14 This sensitivity analysis tests the effects of replacing paper landfilling with burning and energy recovery. It also considers the avoided impacts from the produced energy. This sensitivity analysis tests the potential effects of including the capital equipment in the study. Mass is not an underlying physical relationship for allocating the environmental burdens at sawmills between the different co-products. Since the primary products from sawmills (lumber) have a much higher economic value than the other co-products (chips, bark, sawdust), it has been argued that mass would allocate overly significant environmental impacts to chips. Therefore, to simulate the effect of having less burden allocated to chips, a correction factor of 90% has been applied to the chip data. The avoided burden method is often used for sold power. In this sensitivity analysis, it is assumed that 1) the average mill electricity grid is displaced; 2) the North American Electricity grid is displaced. The avoided burden method is often used for electricity produced at landfills. In this sensitivity analysis, it is assumed that the average U.S. electricity grid is displaced. In LCA, a flow approach to biogenic carbon accounting is almost always used, whereas a stock approach has been used in this LCA. Therefore, the flow method is used as a sensitivity analysis. CML method is used for comparability with other AF&PA LCA studies. ReCiPe method for some impact categories. 14 The global environmental consequences of increasing the recovery rate are not addressed in this sensitivity analysis. xxv

17 ES.4 RESULTS OFFICE PAPER (UNCOATED FREESHEET) The following sections present a summary of results and sensitivity analyses for office paper (uncoated freesheet). ES.4.1 LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESULTS Characterization results: The cradle-to-grave life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results obtained by applying TRACI are shown in Table ES-4. Note that the fiber procurement stage includes forestry operations, off-site chip production, allocated upstream burdens and sequestration associated with recovered fiber, and transportation to the pulp and paper mills. Other transport-related releases are assigned to the downstream process (i.e., the transport destination). Results in Table ES-4 indicate that the uncoated freesheet production life cycle stage is the largest contributor to all impact categories except for eutrophication for which the largest contributor is the end-of-life of the paper. Note: In the case of office paper there is no life cycle step #3 (i.e., printing activities). This applies to all Results tables. Impact category Unit/ream Total Global Warming (GW) Acidification (AC) Respiratory effects (RES) Eutrophication (EU) Table ES-4. LCIA Results Ream of Office Paper 1. Fiber procurement 2. Uncoated freesheet production 4. Transport of UCF 5. Endof-life Storage kg CO 2 eq % 58.3% 1.4% 36.7% -5.1% H + moles eq % 83.5% 2.9% 0.9% kg PM 2.5 eq % 93.6% 0.7% 0.6% kg N eq % 38.8% 0.6% 57.2% Ozone depletion 15 kg CFC-11 eq. 2.60E-07 8% 77% 5% 11% (OD) Smog (SM) kg NOx eq. 8.81E % 58.5% 10.9% 4.4% Fossil fuel depletion (FF) MJ surplus % 78.7% 3.5% 1.2% N/A ES.4.2 ADDITIONAL RESULTS Use of renewable resources: The resource depletion impact indicators in LCA can provide important insights into the impacts associated with consumption of fossil fuels and other nonrenewable resources. The LCA impact indicators used in this study, however, do not reveal the extent to which a system s resource requirements are met using renewable resources, information that may be of interest to some stakeholders. In this study, the inventory results 15 Results obtained using the ecoinvent database only (see Section for more details). xxvi

18 document that 62% (mass basis) of the total life cycle resource requirements (excluding water) 16 for a ream of office paper is renewable (i.e., wood fiber). Life cycle energy demand (LCED) by type: Table ES-5 shows the life cycle energy demand by type for one ream of office paper. The results in this table are not measures of potential impact associated with this demand. In the impact assessment for this study, only fossil fuel extraction is considered in the calculation of resource depletion (using the fossil fuel depletion impact indicator which, by definition, does not include renewable energy). The results show that almost 100% of the renewable energy and 84% of the non-renewable energy is used in paper production life cycle stage. Table ES-5. Life Cycle Energy Demand by Type per Functional Unit (Ream of Office Paper) Type of energy demand Total (MJ/ream) 1- Fiber procurement 2- Uncoated freesheet production 4- Transport and use 5- End-of- Life Fossil % 84.2% 2.2% 0.9% Nuclear % 89.1% 0.0% 2.5% Total non-renewable % 84.4% 2.1% 0.9% Biomass % 99.0% 0.0% 0.0% Wind, solar, geothermal % 84.0% 0.2% 0.9% Water (hydroelectric) % 91.5% 0.1% 0.6% Total renewable % 98.8% 0.0% 0.0% Total % 90.9% 1.2% 0.5% Water use: Water use impact assessment methodologies are still under development. Nonetheless, water use is often a metric of interest in sustainability programs. In this study, life cycle water use was calculated, with water use being broadly defined to include all water that is used, even if it is returned to the environment after use, but not including water used to produce hydropower. Of the 160 kg (353 pounds) of water associated with the ream of office paper life cycle, 133 kg (293 pounds) are used at the mill to manufacture the paper. Over 90% of this water is returned to the environment in liquid form. ES.4.3 INTERPRETATION Uncertainty The uncertainty in the results was evaluated using a semi-quantitative procedure that examines the relative uncertainty associated with the different impact indicators (fully quantitative uncertainty assessment is not practical for most life cycle studies). The assessment addressed the effects of uncertainty in the inventory data only. The uncertainty associated with impact 16 The data do not allow for characterizing water consumption, only water use numbers are available. Hence, water consumption was not included in the total resource consumption indicator. 17 From purchased power, mostly from background processes. xxvii

19 modeling can be considerable but is difficult to quantify. The assessment suggests that the global warming, acidification, respiratory effects, ozone depletion, smog and fossil fuel depletion indicators present relatively low data uncertainty compared to the others. Contribution and Sensitivity Analyses In these analyses, the contributions of the different life cycle stages to the impact categories are examined in greater detail (see Figure ES-2). 1- Fiber procurement 2- Uncoated freesheet production 4- Transportation and use of UCF 5- End-of-Life Storage in use and landfill 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% -20% GW AC RES EU OD SM FF Figure ES-2. Cradle-to-Grave Contribution Analysis Office Paper In addition, this section of the interpretation examines the sensitivity of the impact category results to 1) different data sets, 2) modeling assumptions, and 3) methodological choices (see Table ES-3). Global Warming: Important contributors to the global warming impact indicator include the following life cycle stages: the production of uncoated freesheet (releases from fossil fuel combustion at pulp and paper mills, releases associated with electricity purchased by pulp and paper mills and production of sodium chlorate); and the end-of-life of the office paper (methane generated and released when the office paper is disposed in landfills). In the case of office paper, the carbon stored in products in use and in landfills has a small impact on the indicator. The global warming indicator results are relatively insensitive to most of the parameters tested, except for the recovery rate and the end-of-life scenario. An increase in the recovery rate has significant benefits for the global warming indicator (an increase in the recovery rate from 72% to 85% decreases the global warming indicator results by ~25%). This is because increasing the recovery rate 1) allows more of the emissions to be exported with recovered fiber to subsequent uses in other systems and 2) decreases methane emissions from landfills. Also, by eliminating landfilling at the end of life and replacing it with burning and energy recovery, this indicator is reduced by approximately 40%. Finally, the global warming indicator result is xxviii

20 relatively insensitive to the approach for carbon accounting. Uncertainty in the global warming indicator results is relatively low. Acidification: The main contributor to the acidification indicator is the uncoated freesheet life cycle stage. Specifically, releases of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the process and the combustion of fuels, purchased electricity, and the production of sodium chlorate are the largely responsible for acidification. Truck transportation of the fiber (fiber procurement life cycle stage) is also a non-negligible contributor. The acidification indicator results are sensitive to the data set employed (U.S. LCI and ecoinvent versus ecoinvent only); the recovery rate (an increase in the recovery rate from 72% to 85% decreases the acidification indicator results by 15%, mainly because more burden is transferred to subsequent uses); and the end-of-life scenario (substituting landfill with energy recovery leads to a 15% benefit mainly because of the avoided electricity production). They are not very sensitive to other parameters. Uncertainty in the acidification indicator results is relatively low. Respiratory Effects: The most important contributor to the respiratory effects is the uncoated freesheet life cycle stage (on-site releases, natural gas consumption, purchased electricity, and manufacturing of some chemicals). Less important contributors include use of natural gas and electricity in the fiber procurement life cycle stage. This indicator is generally not sensitive to the parameters tested during the sensitivity analyses, except for the increase in recovery rate (an increase in the recovery rate from 72% to 85% decreases the respiratory effects indicator by 15%; see Table ES-3 for more explanation). The uncertainty associated with the respiratory effects indicator is estimated to be relatively low. Eutrophication: The end of life of paper (as indicated through COD from the leachate of municipal paper landfill) is the life cycle stage that contributes the most to eutrophication. It is important to note that the TRACI method characterizes both COD and BOD as having an effect on eutrophication, which is probably double-counting if both COD and BOD are reported for the same unit process (as is the case for waste paper in landfills), given that they are interrelated 18. This indicator is not sensitive to any of the parameters tested except the recovery rate of the paper (an increase in the recovery rate from 72% to 85% reduces the eutrophication indicator results by 34%) and the end-of-life scenario (assuming that all landfilled product is burned for energy recovery and creding the system with an avoided electricity production reduce the 18 Landfill releases to water and soil were modeled using the ecoinvent database which considers an infinite time horizon and integrates over time releases arising after 100 years by assuming the collection system will fail after 100 years and that everything is emitted to groundwater. The degradability of wastes is used to model short-term releases (< 100 years). Releases beyond the 100- year horizon could have been excluded since these are specifically tagged as long-term emissions in the database. However, in order to be consistent with the carbon degradability approach taken, the database was not modified. xxix

21 results by 52%). Its relative uncertainty is moderate, meaning that the uncertainty is higher than for the indicators for global warming potential, acidification, respiratory effects, ozone depletion, smog and fossil fuel depletion. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 19 : The main contributing life cycle stage is the production of the uncoated freesheet [wood and black liquor combustion, production of residual fuel oil (RFO)]. The ozone depletion indicator is highly sensitive to the data set employed (U.S. LCI and ecoinvent versus ecoinvent only). Uncertainty in the ozone depletion indicator results is relatively low. Photochemical Oxidants (Smog): Important contributors to smog include the following life cycle stages: uncoated freesheet production (on-site releases, purchased electricity); fiber procurement (transportation and fuel usage); and transportation of the office paper to its use phase. Smog is relatively insensitive to most parameters tested except for end-of-life scenarios: increasing the recovery rate from 72% to 85% leads to a 15% of the indicator results (see Table ES-3 for more explanation); substituting landfill by burning with energy recovery also leads to a 15% of the indicator results. The uncertainty in the results for this indicator is also estimated to be relatively low. Fossil Fuel Depletion: Uncoated freesheet production is the life cycle stage contributing the most to the fossil fuel depletion life cycle stage. More specifically, on-site usage of natural gas and oil, purchased electricity and production of sodium chlorate are significant contributors. The fossil fuel depletion indicator results are generally insensitive to the parameters tested except for the increase in the recovery rate which leads to a 15% improvement of the indicator results (see Table ES-3 for more explanation). The uncertainty in the results for this indicator is also estimated to be relatively low. ES.5 RESULTS CATALOG (COATED FREESHEET) ES.5.1 LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESULTS Characterization results: The cradle-to-grave life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results from TRACI are shown in Table ES-6. Note that the fiber procurement stage includes forestry operations, off-site chip production, allocated upstream burdens and sequestration associated with recovered fiber, and transportation to the pulp and paper mills. Other transport-related releases are assigned to the downstream process (i.e., the transport destination). Results in Table ES-6 indicate that the coated freesheet production life cycle stage is the largest contributor to all impact categories except for the eutrophication indicator, for which the largest contributor is the end-of-life of the paper. 19 Results obtained using the ecoinvent database only. For more details, see the sensitivity analysis section. xxx

22 Table ES-6. LCIA Results Catalog Impact category Global Warming (GW) Acidification (AC) Respiratory effects (RES) Eutrophication (EU) Ozone depletion (OD) 20 Smog (SM) Fossil fuel depletion (FF) Unit kg CO 2 eq. H + moles eq. kg PM 2.5 eq. Total (unit/ catalog) 1- Fiber procurement 2- Coated freesheet production 3- Production of catalogs 4- Transport and use 5- Endof-life Storage in use and landfill 4.89E % 43.6% 15.7% 1.2% 37.7% -3.4% 1.67E % 67.4% 21.1% 1.1% 2.9% 6.52E % 77.9% 15.6% 0.3% 2.6% kg N eq. 8.85E % 19.0% 6.2% 0.2% 72.8% kg CFC- 11 eq. kg NOx eq. MJ surplus 2.63E-08 6% 53% 31% 4% 7% 2.10E % 36.4% 48.7% 1.8% 5.3% 3.94E % 52.4% 29.8% 2.6% 5.9% N/A ES.5.2 ADDITIONAL RESULTS Use of renewable resources: The resource depletion impact indicators in LCA can provide important insights into the impacts associated with consumption of fossil fuels and other nonrenewable resources. The LCA impact indicators used in this study, however, do not reveal the extent to which a system s resource requirements are met using renewable resources, information that may be of interest to some stakeholders. In this study, the inventory results document that 45% (mass basis) of the total life cycle resource requirements (excluding water) 21 for a catalog is renewable (i.e., wood fiber). This value may seem lower than one would expect. This is because the conversion of the coated freesheet into catalogs involves the usage of a significant amount of non-renewable resources, mainly due to electricity consumption. Life cycle energy demand (LCED) by type: Table ES-7 shows the life cycle energy demand by type for one catalog 22. The results in this table are not measures of potential impact associated with this demand. In the impact assessment for this study, only fossil fuel extraction is considered in the calculation of resource depletion (using the fossil fuel depletion impact indicator which, by definition, does not include renewable energy). 20 Results obtained using the ecoinvent database only (see Section for more details) 21 The data do not allow for characterizing water consumption; only water use numbers are available. Hence, water consumption was not included in the total resource consumption indicator. 22 The energy content of petroleum-based feedstocks is included in life cycle energy demand because petroleum is a resource that is used almost entirely as a source of energy. xxxi

23 The results show that 97% of the renewable energy and 62% of the non-renewable energy is used in the paper production life cycle stage. The conversion of paper into catalogs is also an important contributor to non-renewable energy demand. Type of energy demand Table ES-7. Life Cycle Energy Demand by Type per Functional Unit (Catalog) Total 1- Fiber procurement 2- Coated freesheet production 3- Production of catalogs 4- Transport and use 5- End-of-Life Fossil % 60.8% 26.1% 1.6% 4.5% Nuclear % 73.4% 16.1% 0.0% 5.4% Total nonrenewable % 61.2% 25.8% 1.6% 4.5% Biomass % 98.1% 0.9% 0.0% 0.0% Wind, solar, geothermal Water (hydroelectric) Total renewable % 39.9% 46.6% 0.1% 1.7% % 65.1% 23.2% 0.1% 1.9% % 96.9% 1.8% 0.0% 0.1% Total % 72.4% 18.3% 1.1% 3.1% Water use: Water use impact assessment methodologies are still under development. Nonetheless, water use is often a metric of interest in sustainability programs. In this study, life cycle water use was calculated, with water use being broadly defined to include all water that is used, even if it is returned to the environment after use, but not including water used to produce hydropower. Of the 13.4 kg (29.5 pounds) of water associated with the catalog life cycle, 10.8 kg (23.8 pounds) are used at the mill to manufacture the paper. Over 90% of this water is returned to the environment in liquid form. ES.5.3 INTERPRETATION Uncertainty The uncertainty in the results was evaluated using a semi-quantitative procedure that examines the relative uncertainty associated with the different impact indicators (fully quantitative uncertainty assessment is not practical for most life cycle studies). The assessment addressed the effects of uncertainty in the inventory data only. The uncertainty associated with impact modeling can be considerable but is difficult to quantify. The uncertainty analysis suggests that the indicators for global warming, acidification, respiratory effects, ozone depletion, smog, and fossil fuel depletion indicators present relatively low data uncertainty compared to the others. 23 From purchased power, mostly from background processes. xxxii