Module 3 PREVENTION October 2005

Transcription

1 Module 3 PREVENTION October 2005

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3.1 What is prevention? Prevention is better than the cure Prevention is cost-effective Principles of IAS prevention Prevention tools for intentional introductions Risk analysis The role of risk analysis How should risk analysis be applied? Components of risk analysis Steps in performing a risk analysis Risk management Risk communication Summary Environmental Impact Assessment Authorisation procedures Species lists Quarantine and border control Prevention tools for unintentional and illegal introductions Managing pathways and vectors Quarantine and border control Treatment Education and awareness Key points of this module... 20

3 Module 3: Prevention 3 3 PREVENTION Objectives of this module: 1. Explain the principles of prevention 2. Describe the approaches and tools required for a basic risk analysis 3. Demonstrate how and where to apply prevention measures 4. Give examples of appropriate prevention measures 3.1 What is prevention? Module 1 established how important the increasing risks of IAS are, and also demonstrated some of the costs associated with dealing with them. This Module deals with prevention, which is the application of measures aimed at reducing or eliminating species introductions, or at preventing their establishment. Different prevention measures are applied to intentional and unintentional introductions, respectively. Examples include permitting procedures for imported species, and inspections of imported goods (especially natural products) to prevent unintentional introductions. Activity 3.1 Discuss why prevention is the preferred management option for IAS Prevention is better than the cure All pest reduction and management strategies recognise the medical maxim: an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. The most efficient way to stop the establishment and subsequent damage by IAS is to prevent them from becoming a problem in the first place. Countries such us Australia, New Zealand, the USA and others that have recognised the costs and threats that IAS pose have instituted prevention-based strategies involving pre-border, border and post-border controls, plus more effective quarantine mechanisms to reduce IAS incursions. While it may not be possible to stop all introductions, they can be minimised by having effective preventive measures in place. Once an IAS has established in a new location it can be very difficult, expensive and environmentally damaging to remove. Prevention is better than cure!

4 Module 3: Prevention Prevention is cost-effective It costs a lot of money to set up and maintain an efficient and effective prevention system. The associated costs are, however, far less than the costs of dealing with established IAS populations (Table 3.1). Table 3.1. Examples of economic arguments for prevention in the USA (US$ in millions). IAS or Vector Annual prevention Cost Projected annual costs if the IAS establish Foot and Mouth Disease $1,013 $25,575 Siberi an log imports Purple loosestrife $39 $2 $64,704 $53 This table shows that the prevention costs are often very high (in the millions of dollars). However, the costs to a country s economy of an IAS establishing are much, much higher. Activity 3.2 Quickly calculate the cost/benefit ratio of prevention versus control after establishment for the examples in Table 3.1. Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) EXAMPLE A simple example of prevention is from southern California, where new laws prohibit people from even bringing in a single orange. The price tag for this prevention effort is a fraction of the estimated $350 million California spent on cleaning up a recent infestation of the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata). Fruit fly larvae burrow into a variety of fruits and fleshy vegetables, causing damage and major crop loss Prevention is orders of magnitude cheaper than eradication, control or mitigation 3.2 Principles of IAS prevention Prevention involves regulating intentional introductions and minimising unintentional introductions through the identification and elimination of known and potential high-risk species and pathways (See Module 1 for details on pathways). Measures to prevent the establishment of IAS can be applied pre-border (before it leaves the source country), at the border (as it enters a country), or post-border (once it is already within a country); the latter is dealt with in the next module

5 Module 3: Prevention 5 Early Detection and Rapid Response. The following principles are intended to provide guidance for the development of strategies for the prevention of IAS introductions. Principle 1: Prevention is better than cure: prevention is more cost-effective and environmentally less damaging than measures taken following introduction and establishment of an IAS. Principle 2: No intentional introduction should be allowed unless approved by a suitable regulatory authority. The process for granting or denying approval for an alien species introduction should be based on risk analysis. Principle 3: Unintentional and unauthorised introductions of alien species should be minimised. This can be achieved through the identification of the common pathways and the risks associated with unintentional IAS introductions and the application of appropriate measures. Principle 4: Apply a precautionary approach: consider every alien species as potentially invasive until convincing evidence indicates that it presents no threat. Every alien species must be considered guilty until proven innocent. Principle 5: The intentional and unintentional movement of IAS should be controlled between and within countries. Principle 6: IAS should be prevented from being introduced into protected or vulnerable areas. Principle 7: The concept of zero risk for the prevention of IAS is unrealistic this could only be achieved if trade, transport and travel are halted. However, countries should make every effort to minimise the risk. Principle 8: Every country in the world is a potential recipient as well as a potential source of IAS; it is in everybody s interest to cooperate to control the movement of IAS. Principle 9: The public should be made aware of the threats posed by IAS, and their role in introducing them, and should be encouraged to become a part of the solution. Principle 10: IAS prevention strategies should be supported by suitable legislation, policy and resources including people, infrastructure and funding. Prevention is the first, best and cheapest line of defence

6 Module 3: Prevention Prevention tools for intentional introductions Intentional introductions of alien species have potential for great economic benefit. Equally, they have the potential for great economic and environmental harm. It is increasingly accepted that deliberate introductions must therefore undergo a thorough risk analysis before a permit can be issued that allows importation. Permitting procedures for managing new species introductions vary from country to country. Strict procedures and thorough, science-based analysis and assessment have proven invaluable and extremely cost-effective preventative measures. Risk analysis should be done on all new, intentional species introductions The following tools are appropriate for preventing intentional introductions from becoming IAS: Risk analysis Environmental Impact Assessments Authorisation procedures Species lists Quarantine and Border control Risk analysis The role of risk analysis What is risk? In our daily lives, we do things which pose a certain amount of risk (e.g. driving a car or smoking cigarettes). We implicitly accept that the benefits of such risky activities outweigh the chance of a negative outcome (although we may not explicitly consider the risk each time we drive to work or light up). Therefore, risk is incorporated into our daily activities. Similarly, the risks associated with introducing IAS can be weighed and considered in conjunction with any potential benefits associated with them, or the activities that introduce them. Activity 3.3: Life is risky! Objective: To think about risk perception and its subjectivity. 1. Using the handouts, consider the following list: Driving a car Taking X-rays for diagnosis Riding a motorcycle Smoking a pack of cigarettes per day

7 Module 3: Prevention 7 Fighting fires Drinking a diet soda (saccharin sweetened) per day. Rank the six activities from the most risky (6) to the least risky (1), and provide a brief basis for the ranking. Discuss the different rankings that other people/groups decided on. Activity Rank Motivation Driving a car Taking X-rays Riding a motorcycle Smoking Fighting fires Drinking a diet soda/day How should risk analysis be applied? Risk analysis has traditionally focussed on certain types of impacts (e.g. competition with commercially valuable species), and certain taxa or types of potential invasive alien species only. Increasingly, it is being recognised that risk analysis should apply to all taxa and to the full scope of impacts that can potentially be caused. Also, risk analysis is being extended to include invasion pathways. Risk analysis should incorporate all taxa and all potential impacts of IAS, including impacts on diversity and ecosystem functioning In the case of a particular species, risk analysis determines the risk of introduction, establishment, spread and impact of the organism under consideration, and is prepared by reviewing literature and consulting with stakeholders and technical experts. Risk analysis for a particular pathway will focus more on determining the risk associated with unintentionally introducing an unknown organism as a consequence of a certain activity (e.g. shipping). These processes should be science-based, politically independent, transparent, consistent with government

8 Module 3: Prevention 8 policy and the country s international obligations and rights, harmonised as much as possible with international practice and subject to appeal. The results of a risk analysis should be used to determine if remedial action should be taken and, if so, what kind. For example, the decision whether to allow the intentional importation of a new species is made based on the risk analysis. This includes the decision to authorise the introduction with or without conditions. For pathways, risk analysis will determine whether risk management action needs to be taken and if so what (vector treatment, health standards, etc.). The results of a risk assessment should be used as part of an environmental impact assessment if an intentional introduction is being analysed Components of risk analysis The risk analysis process has three main components (Figure 3.1): 1. Risk Assessment 2. Risk Management 3. Risk Communication It must be noted that risk assessments are subjective and not all the available information will necessarily be reliable. For these reasons, risk management strategies should be considered, in case the assessment reached the wrong conclusions and allowed the introduction of a species that becomes invasive. The decision on whether to import or prohibit a new species is made based on the environmental impact assessment (EIA), which includes the findings, conclusions or recommendations of a risk analysis Steps in performing a risk analysis The first step is to identify the proposed species or pathway. To identify a species correctly may require specialist taxonomic knowledge. The following steps help to assess the risk posed by the species or pathway. An assessment will need to consider: 1. The likelihood of the alien species being introduced or, in the case of intentional introductions, escaping into the wild. 2. The likelihood of it establishing following introduction. 3. The consequences of establishment, i.e. impacts on the environment, the economy and human health. 4. The level of risk posed by the proposed species without management. 5. The feasibility of managing spread (if it escapes, is released, etc). 6. The feasibility of managing incursions. 7. Residual threat posed by managed risk, with costs. The risk assessment will also identify a level of risk associated with the species or activity (e.g. No, Low, Medium, Acceptable, High, Unacceptable). Activity 3.4 Examine the risks that non-native species pose to your country:

9 Module 3: Prevention 9 Choose species that may be potentially harmful to do an assessment on (these are species that have had a serious impact in countries similar to your own). Collate information on key aspects of their biology, ecology and pest status, e.g. geographic distribution, hosts, economic impact and management. If you do not have all the information you need, write down what the knowledge gaps are and what you would need to do if you had the information Produce a risk analysis assessing of the risk of entry, establishment and potential damage the assessed species may cause, together with options for management Risk management The conclusions from the risk assessment are used to decide whether risk management is required. Risk management is the process of identifying ways to react to a perceived risk, evaluating the effectiveness of these actions, and identifying the most appropriate options. Risk management includes emergency response plans that should be in place before a species escapes or a new species is found Risk communication The point of using risk analysis should be clearly formulated and communicated to stakeholders, including the public. Also, information on the results of the risk assessment and identified management options should be made available to stakeholders. This will help to win their engagement and support for any actions that may need to be taken. Open exchanges of information, i.e. consulting, informing and explaining, lead to better understanding and better decisions. Accordingly, stakeholders need to be informed about the entire risk analysis process and involved at various points, when necessary. Risk analysis consists of a risk assessment, risk management and risk communication

10 Module 3: Prevention Summary In the context of IAS, risk analysis evaluates the likelihood of an IAS entering and establishing in an area and the potential environmental and economic impacts. It can be performed on an IAS or a pathway and should be based on the precautionary approach. Sidney Harris ( Environmental Impact Assessment An EIA is the next step in deciding whether or not to permit a species introduction. It takes the findings of the risk analysis and considers other implications besides the risk of a species becoming invasive. An EIA for each proposed introduction of an alien species will vary, depending on the species and pathway concerned. For example, the factors to consider when importing a new species for horticulture will differ to those when applying to import a species for scientific research or a new species of animal for farming. Permitting authorities will use the EIA to help decide on whether or not to allow an introduction and what conditions (if any) should be attached to the permit. Environmental Impact Assessment includes the findings of a risk analysis and also considers the broader implications of a proposed introduction Essential components of an EIA for the introduction of a new species: 1. What is the purpose and objective of the introduction? 2. Is there not an indigenous species that could be used for the same purpose? 3. Is this organism considered a pest in its native range or in any other area where the organism has been introduced? 4. Does the organism have any close relatives occurring in the new country (i.e. it may out-compete native species)? 5. What is the biology of the organism including its diet, reproductive habits, size, longevity, diet, etc? 6. What is its preferred habitat (e.g. grasslands, forest understorey, etc)? 7. What precautions will be taken to prevent the introduction of pathogens, parasites or attached organisms with, in, or on the introduced organism (i.e., health certification, quarantine, treatments)? 8. Are there any existing eradication or control programs for this species?

11 Module 3: Prevention 11 If the EIA process is not open and transparent, it can be perceived to be unfair, biased and therefore not fully supported. This can lead to situations where importers and members of the public try to subvert the process and use illegal means to get species of interest to them inside the country. Also, a lack of public support will jeopardise the whole prevention process, because unpopular decisions are politically risky Authorisation procedures Authorisation procedures for permits and licences are some of the most important tools for controlling the movement of alien species between and within countries. Permits may be granted with certain conditions, and with specific penalties and fines if those conditions are violated. Specific conditions may include details on preventative treatment required, inspection of facilities and operations, measures to prevent the potential escape of species from facilities, and rapid response measures to take if a species does escape. Border control services should inspect imports either in the country of origin or on arrival at the destination to verify compliance with conditions of the import licence. There may also be a need for a system whereby local authorities inspect facilities (such as zoos and research centres) to ensure that permit conditions are being strictly followed. Authorities can issue permits and licences to import species that include specific conditions as well as penalties if permit conditions are violated

12 Module 3: Prevention 12 An importer wishes to bring in a new species (e.g. animal for farming) Risk assessment and EIA undertaken Import is either: High risk import rejected Low risk import accepted A licence or permit is issued to bring in the organism. This states what quarantine conditions must be met and/or the treatment needed e.g. cold storage, fumigation, etc. Relevant authorities inspect the new import to check compliance Audits are carried out to ensure compliance with permit conditions Figure 3.2. Summary of management procedures for an intentional introduction Species lists To filter the intentional introduction of invasive species, a three-list system should be applied. However, it is important to remember that the precautionary principle should be applied when listing species: that a new species is considered guilty (i.e. invasive and therefore undesirable) until proven innocent this is known as a negative listing. Here the term Grey list is used for alien species of unknown (and therefore potentially invasive) status. Once risk assessments have been done, as species is then placed on either the red or green list (sometime these are referred to as black and white lists, respectively)

13 Module 3: Prevention Grey (holding) list Any new species (i.e. not already specifically assessed or not already in the country) automatically goes onto this list. Each species should be subject to risk assessment prior to a decision on introduction. Species listing and decisionmaking need to be based on scientific criteria that are periodically reviewed and are transparent. Once a risk assessment has been done, a species can be placed on the red or the green list, or remain on the Grey list as a species under observation. If monitoring shows that that species is becoming invasive, permit conditions must be amendable or the species should be moved to the red list. All candidate species for first-time introduction to a country should be considered guilty until proven innocent 2. Red list The red list shows species for which introduction is strictly prohibited, because they are known or strongly suspected to be to be invasive and destructive. This also has relevance when deciding on which species require surveillance for post-border management. RED LISTED X 3. Green list These are species classified as low risk, following a risk analysis or based on a long history of experience with that species. These are mainly species useful for agriculture, forestry, or human health. Introduction of these species may be authorised without restriction or under conditions restricting the use of the species to specific purposes (e.g. research or public education). However, care should be taken to avoid giving the impression that uncontrolled releases of green-listed species is encouraged. There must be a high degree of scientific certainty that a species will cause no harm before it is placed on a green list The three-list system is comprehensive, because all species are categorised. However, most species will start off on the grey list, which is not necessarily a real list (i.e. there isn t actually a physical list with each species name on it). The listing system should be dynamic, making it possible to transfer a species to a different list, to allow for changes in the status of species (e.g. if a green-listed species is repeatedly introduced over a long period, the risk should be reassessed if there is new evidence of potential invasive behaviour). If monitoring shows that that species is becoming invasive, permit conditions must be amendable or the species should be moved to the red list.

14 Module 3: Prevention 14 Example Australian Biosecurity Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) system. The Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) system is an important weed management tool used for intentional introductions of plants used by Biosecurity Australia, to determine whether a new plant import will be authorised. It has been instrumental in reducing the number of potential weed species brought into Australia. Before pasture and fodder plants can be imported or released by organisations in Australia, they must be assessed for weediness under this system. This system may be applied to other countries. Questions in the WRA include information of the plant s climatic preferences, biological attributes, reproductive and dispersal method. The WRA uses the responses to the questions to generate a numerical score. The score is used to determine an outcome: accept, reject or further evaluate for the species. The WRA also makes a prediction as to whether a species may be a weed of agriculture or the environment Quarantine and border control Quarantine and border controls for intentional introductions are important when the identity of the species being imported is unclear. Quarantine measures should be in place so that the organisms can be held safely and without risk of escape, until they can be correctly identified by an appropriate authority. Quarantine is also useful as a holding area in case there has been a delay or problem in the permitting process and the customs authorities are unable to clear the organisms for introduction. Intentional introductions of species that have been authorised for introduction need to be checked for unwanted commensal (hitchhiking) species that could become invasive. Some familiar quarantine measures are placed on the import of domestic animals, such as horses and dogs, that may harbour an IAS disease. However, plants carry pathogens and parasites, even as seeds, and these should be screened carefully before individuals are cleared for entry. However, due to the nature of many hitchhiking species, it may not be sufficient to quarantine individuals at the border. Quarantine procedures, checks and controls should happen pre-, at- and post-border. Quarantine and control measures are dealt with in greater detail under section 3.4: Managing unintentional and illegal introductions. Quarantine procedures should be instituted for intentional introductions, in case the species identity or necessary permits are in question

15 Module 3: Prevention Prevention tools for unintentional and illegal introductions Unintentional or illegal introductions are more difficult to regulate against. Thus there are no risk assessments or EIAs that can be done on these species. The management tools available include: Managing pathways and vectors Quarantine and border control Treatment or vector control Raising awareness and education Managing pathways and vectors Various countries have developed systems independently to prevent IAS introductions. Through trial and error, several key components have emerged that go to make an effective prevention strategy. An emerging consensus is that countries should establish agreements with their major trading partners to have measures in place to minimise the chance of an IAS leaving the point of departure (airports, wharfs, etc). In other words, ideally propagules are prevented from even leaving their home county. This is by far the most attractive, costeffective option. The methods used are usually a combination of things that are essential to implement a prevention strategy. Managing pathways is considered more effective than targeting specific species. Monitoring pathways and vectors can screen out many potential IAS without additional time or money per species, and it also avoids the problem of false negatives, i.e. species incorrectly assessed as non-invasive or innocuous. Managing pathways and vectors will screen out many alien species without additional per-species costs The first step is to identify and assess all available vectors and routes to the borders and regions of interest. Each primary and secondary pathway can then be assessed in terms of its capacity to transfer species, its geographic origin and its relative role compared to other pathways. Each pathway can also be assessed according to the number of known or suspected harmful invasive species at its source, plus the degree of environmental similarity between the source and terminus of the pathway. One pathways that can readily be managed is the inspection of shipping containers, aircrafts or the like for the presence of stowaway organisms. For example, flights from the island of Guam, where the brown tree snake Boiga irregularis has invaded, are checked before take-off. This is because aeroplane flights have been identified as a significant pathway for the snake to invade other islands.

16 Module 3: Prevention 16 Identifying the pathways used by smugglers is more difficult, and so more costly, but systems can be put in place to minimise illegal imports. For example, New Zealand authorities identified smuggling via mail as a significant pathway. They have devised an elaborate but efficient system for checking all mail that enters the country and screening out any illegal imports of seeds, eggs, pupae, etc Quarantine and border control Ideally, pre-border checks should be carried out before goods are transported. However, when this is not the case, it is vital to ensure that countries have in place robust procedures to intercept IAS at the border and prevent their establishment and spread within the country or ecosystem. There should be facilities at each point of entry for quarantining goods that are themselves alien species or that might contain alien species. In the case of infectious diseases for farm animals, quarantine procedures take place before the animal(s) are brought across the border, and often at the border too. Inspection of goods, materials and people should be conducted pre-border, at the border, or post border Prevention Pre-Border Certification Inspection IAS proof packaging Treatment Pre-quarantine for live plants and animals Border Certification Visual inspection Remote inspection - x-ray - cameras Post-entry quarantine for live organisms Post-Border Public awareness Active surveillance Passive surveillance Pre-planned response programmes Pre-planned management programmes Figure 3.4. Management activities for pre-border, border and post-border IAS prevention

17 Module 3: Prevention 17 A Pre-border There are a number of pre-border measures to prevent international movement of pest organisms. These include things like: Pest control in production fields Quality control measures in packhouses Inspection during production, packing and prior to shipment Pest-proof packaging Treatment of goods and packaging Timing of shipment (e.g. use winter windows for fruit fly hosts coming to New Zealand, or shipping between the Northern and Southern hemispheres when seasonality differences reduce pest survival) Pre-shipment quarantine for live plants/animals, etc. Vetinary inspections and issuing of clearance certificates The objective is to reduce the likelihood of the product being infested/contaminated, and/or reduce survival of organisms associated with the product (prevent shipment, prevent survival). B Border Port of entry inspection works in two ways: 1. Direct examination of vectors for the presence of alien species 2. Monitoring of imports to ensure that requirements for reducing the risk of introduction have been met Methods of examination of vectors include: Physical searches Immunisation certificates (to prevent people from introducing infectious diseases, such as yellow fever and cholera) X-ray machines Sniffer dogs Cameras Probes Several countries use detector dogs as an effective tool in the prevention of entry of exotic pests and diseases. Detector dog teams working at international airports are an integral part of border controls for detecting products that could harbor illegal plant and animal species. Figure 3.3. Departure lounge quarantine message ( The object of these prevention measures is to detect any infested/contaminated items, and/or

18 Module 3: Prevention 18 kill any organisms associated with the product (prevent entry, prevent survival). Passengers arriving in countries where some products are prohibited are warned to dispose of or declare any banned goods as they pass through customs. Most passengers arriving in new countries also need to fill out a declaration form stating they are not bringing in any banned goods. There are serious consequences for those caught violating quarantine laws. It is possible to profile passengers. For example, this means that customs officials would pay particular attention to people who have recently visited countries with known disease epidemics. For example, during the foot and mouth epidemic in the United Kingdom in 2000, all passengers arriving in New Zealand from the UK who had been to infected areas were required to disinfect their footwear. C Post-border Post-border control is essentially early detection and rapid response; the next module (Module 4) deals with this. Nevertheless, post-border control is considered a form of prevention because it prevents species from becoming established and from becoming invasive. Measures are specifically aimed at preventing the spread of IAS that have slipped past the pre-border and border controls and are in the country. Post-border prevention measures can include: Public awareness initiatives Surveillance, including: - active trapping programs i.e. fruit flies, herd/flock programs for various animal diseases. - public surveillance (often a result of awareness) Pre-planned response programs and pest management programs Treatment Routine treatment of commodities (fruit and vegetables) is a standard procedure for removing hitchhiker species. There are a great many treatments that can be used for different target species and different products (see some examples in Table 3.2). The objective of treatment is the removal of all propagules, of all species. If a single treatment method is not 100% effective, a combination of treatments should be employed. Treatment methods should: be 100% effective for all target species cause little or no damage to the commodity cause only minor delays in commercial transit have no human health risks

19 Module 3: Prevention 19 Table 3.2. Treatments for fruit and vegetables imported into the United States Treatment Commodity Target species Fumigation: Fumigate with methyl bromide for 3 hours at o F Chestnuts Cold treatment: Refrigerate below 31 o F for 22 days Vapour heat: Heated in water-saturated air at 110 o F for 8 hours Irradiation: Treated with gamma radiation. Dosage is commodity and species specific Fruit Grapefruit Fruit and vegetables Chestnut weevil (Curculio elephas) False codling moth (Crytophlebia leucotreta) Insects General Example Treatment of solid wood packing materials to prevent the introduction of the Asian longhorned beetle. The Asian long-horned beetle (ALB) (Anoplophora glabripennis) is believed to have been introduced from China to the U.S in untreated solid wood packing materials (crates, pallets, dunnage). It damages many kinds of hardwood and fruit trees (by tunnelling), and the only safe way to eradicate it is to remove the infected trees and burn them. If left unchecked, the ALB could cause as much as $138 billion in damage to the forestry industry in the US. Figure 3.5. Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis). (Ken Law) Because of the difficulties in treating ALB infestations, stringent new measures to exclude new introductions have been implemented by the US. All wood products entering the U.S. from China have to be heat treated (kiln-dried), fumigated, or treated with preservatives. Treatment must be done at an accredited facility in China. All wood products must be accompanied by a certificate upon arrival at a U.S. port. The new treatment rules are designed to exclude all wood-boring insects Education and awareness Preventing unintentional and illegal introductions can be extremely difficult. Making the general public aware of IAS can go a long way to preventing accidents or stopping illegal activities. Many people simply don t know or understand the threats that illegal introductions pose to their own livelihood and the entire economy. Often, regulations prohibiting the introduction of seeds or pets are seen simply as annoying bureaucratic rules that should be avoided if possible. Educating people will allow people to make the right decisions about importing

20 Module 3: Prevention 20 species. Unless people are aware of the dangers of invasive species, they will be unconcerned about bringing in rare pets, food bought as gifts or seeds for the garden. Module 10 deals with the ins and outs of raising awareness and education. 3.5 Key points of this module Prevention is better than cure Prevention is orders of magnitude cheaper than eradication, control or mitigation Prevention is the first, best and cheapest line of defence Risk analysis should be done on all new, intentional species introductions Risk analysis should incorporate all taxa and all potential impacts of IAS, including impacts on diversity and ecosystem functioning Risk analysis consists of a risk assessment, risk management and risk communication Environmental Impact Assessments include the findings of a risk analysis and also consider the broader implications of a proposed introduction Authorities can issue permits and licences to import species that include specific conditions as well as penalties if permit conditions are violated All candidate species for first-time introduction to a country should be considered guilty until proven innocent There must be a high degree of scientific certainty that a species will cause no harm before it is approved for introduction Quarantine procedures should be instituted for intentional introductions, in case the species identity or necessary permits are in question For unintentional introductions, managing pathways and vectors will screen out many alien species without additional per-species costs Inspection of goods, materials and people should be conducted pre-border, at the border, or post border