ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY AND DOMESTIC USES IN MEDIUM-SIZED TOWNS OF NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

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1 ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY AND DOMESTIC USES IN MEDIUM-SIZED TOWNS OF NIGER STATE, NIGERIA Ibrahim, S. I Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai Ajibade, L.T, PhD University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Abstract An adequate supply of safe and clean water is one of the most important factors for sustaining human life and for achieving sustainable development. The study assessed the variability in the physico-chemical, microbial and metallic constituents in the sources of domestic water use in Niger State. Nineteen towns were sampled as medium-sized towns and 3 physical, 7 chemical,4 microbial and 3 metallic constituents concentration were analyzed from the sources of water in the sampled medium-sized towns. The results were compared with WHO standards. The results from the laboratory analysis revealed evidences of water pollution from their sources. There were evidence of high levels of EC, TDS,C -1,Mg; µs/cm±392.18, 21.05mg/l±265.45, mg/l± and 25.06mg/l±23.94 respectively in well water during the dry season and E.coli at 58.89±23.94 in river water during the raining season. It was established that well and river sources of water are more polluted in the raining season than the borehole. Based on these findings, the study recommends the need to create public awareness in respect of the dangers associated with the consumption of sub-standard water; strengthen the existing water policy by ensuring adequate maintenance of water treatment plants; and establish a workable policy of having maximum threshold of twenty-five households per borehole or ten households to a well by water project groups. Key Words: Sustainable development, water pollution, maintenance, substandard water 63

2 Introduction Niger State is underlain by sedimentary and basement complex rocks which have different capacity of retaining water all year round (Obaje, 2008; Olasehinde, 2010). During the raining season, the whole area is often flooded with water while at the set-in of the dry seasons even the rivers do dry up. This gives rise to difficulties in accessing adequate quality water supply. With the increase in population, the situation of scrambling for domestic water is aggravated. Most of the medium-sized towns have been encountering similar problem of lacking adequate quality water supply since According to Morenikeji et al, (2000) access to portable water in Niger State has been in continuous decrease since 1980s. On the average, less than 20% of the inhabitants of the study area currently have access to portable water. Government had been making effort at providing safe water supply to the inhabitants of the then Niger State since 1966 in form of wells but till today according to Mohammed (2007) the scheme had not been successful to meet the demands of the populace. Despite that domestic water supply dams constructed and commissioned in Minna, Bida and Suleja in 1995 to compliment the sources in the major towns, bi-water World Bank projects boreholes drilled in local government headquarters and wells in the districts. Not sooner as the population increases, all these infrastructure of water supply could no longer meet the water demand of the inhabitants in Niger State. Increase pressure on the available safe water sources and frequent breakdown of public taps, pump machines has been frequent over the years. In the whole state, about forty-five per cent of the public taps are damaged, and fifty- five per cent of the boreholes drilled are not functioning and about sixty-five per cents of the wells are abandoned (Mohammed, 2007). Ajibade (2004) observed that since independence that many water supply schemes have been and are still being commissioned to satisfy political promises and aspirations without resources maintenance consideration. In view of this lack of achievement, this study intends to examine the domestic water use system vis-à-vis quality from medium-sized towns in Niger State, Nigeria with a view to suggest improvement specifications for a sustainable water resource management. 64

3 Fig.1:Sampled L.G.A and Medium-sized Towns. Source: Niger State Ministry of Land and surveys, Minna (2001) Materials and Methods Niger State of Nigeria lies between Latitudes N and N and Longitudes E and E with twenty-five local government area councils (Fig 1). It is located in the North central part of Nigeria, sharing boundaries with Zamfara State in the North, Kebbi State and Republic of Benin in the Northwest, Kwara State in the Southwest, Kogi State in the South, and Federal Capital Territory (FCT) and Kaduna State in the Southeast and North east, respectively (NMLH&S, 2000). The questionnaire elicited for information on settlements considered to be medium-sized towns in each Local Government Area, family size, sources of water, perception on water demand and supply, available household water supply facility, duration of water obtainable from the source among others. Nineteen towns with the population between 5,000-20,000 people across the state was sampled as medium-sized town, each sampled town was divided into wards 65

4 and ten per cent of the total ward were systematically sampled. Water was sampled from Boreholes, wells and rivers in both dry and raining season. Before sampling for chemical analysis, sample bottles were cleaned by soaking them in detergent for 24 hours, followed by rinsing them several times with tap water until they were free of detergent. Thirty-six water samples were collected altogether from wells, boreholes, streams/rivers of the sampled mediumsized towns each during dry and wet seasons respectively. Each sample had two set of bottles labeled (A) and (B), sample bottles (A) were rinsed with 5% nitric acid and used in sampling water for the test of chloride with any other parameter, while sample bottles (B) were rinsed with hydrochloric acid which was used for testing nitrate oxide. The thirty-six water sample bottles were cleaned and sterile according to the standard procedures for microbiological analysis (WHO,1997;UNEP/WHO, 2006). Samples for chemical and microbiological analyses were collected according to standard procedures described in the sampling guide (WHO, 1997; UNEP/WHO, 2006). Samples for trace metal analyses were preserved with 5 m/l concentration of HNO 3. After collection, the samples were placed in cooler boxes with ice chests while being transported to the laboratory and kept at about 4 o C until they are analyzed. Most samples including all microbiological analysis were analyzed within 24 hours. All chemical analyses were done at least in duplicate. The quality assurance studies were done in triplicate for each parameter. Samples were taken between November 2009 and June 2010 to cover the two season of the year so as to check for seasonal variations in the water quality. The laboratory test was conducted by Federal Ministry of Water Resources Regional Water Quality Control Laboratory Minna. Niger State, Nigeria. Bacteriological tests were used to determine if water is bacteriological safe for human consumption. This was based on detection of coliform bacteria, a group of microorganisms recognized as indicators of pollution from human or animal wastes. Coliform bacteria are found in the intestinal tracts and faecal discharges of humans and all warm-blooded animals. Bacteriological test were performed on drinking water by contacting the local health department to obtain the specially prepared bottles and instructions for taking a water sample. Chemical tests on calcium, magnesium, sodium, chloride, sulphate, Nitrate, potassium, fluoride concentration in the samples were determined using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) to identify impurities and other dissolved substances that affect water used for domestic purposes 66

5 Results and Discussions Procedure in analyzing the quality of groundwater involves information on physical, chemical and biological properties. Based on the guidelines of WHO (1997), the physical properties examined include: ph and electrical conductivity, chemical properties were chloride, nitrate, calcium, total hardness, dissolved solids, bicarbonate, magnesium, sodium and potassium while the biological properties were Escherichia coli and total coliform. A ph value of higher than 8.5 indicates that a significant amount of sodium bicarbonate may be present in the water. Water with ph lower than 5 may cause problems due to corrosion because many metals become more soluble in low- ph waters. Borehole water in Gbajibo and Zugurma together with well water in Zugurma have their ph values below 5 which show that they are below desirable limit of WHO permissive level standard. Water Electric Conductivity as recommended by WHO standard in domestic water is 1000mg while the medium-sized water from well has a concentration range from mg. Gbajibo and Zugurma (168 mg), Chanchaga (303mg), Makunkele (490 mg), Ibeto (637 mg), Lapai (716 mg), Kagara (753 mg) and Kutigi (949 mg) wells have conductivity concentration below WHO standard. Mariga (1025 mg), Enagi (1032 mg), Wawa (1144), Paiko (1152) and Rijau (1352 mg) have their conductivity above WHO standard. Borehole water in Paiko h as conductivity above WHO recommended standard limit and the other medium-sized town s borehole water have conductivity below WHO standard. The river water conductivity level is very low in the medium-sized towns. Calcium (Ca 2+ ) and Magnesium (Mg 2+ ) cause water hardness and result from limestone type materials in underground soil layers. Well water in Kagara and borehole had and 193.2mg/L which are high in calcium content when compared to other samples that fall within the permissible range of 150mg/L. The parameters have maximum permissible content of 200 and 0.20 respectively, in water they are used in calculating water hardness which is soap consuming capacity of water, that is the more soap required to produce lather, the harder the water. The presence of high calcium and magnesium level shows consistence of water hardness in such sources of water. Hardness of water causes greasy rings on the bathtubs, film on dishes or hair after washing and poor laundry results. Sodium and Potassium are of low level rate when compared with the standard of 200mg/L as the values range between mg/L for sodium and Potassium mg/L. 67

6 Sodium (Na + ) is of health significance to people on a low-sodium diet. It has permissible content in water of 200mg/L (Annoh, 1997). Any attempt for the content to be beyond 200mg/L will be hazardous to human health. High Sodium and Potassium intake have adverse effects which might result into cardiac, renal or circulation problems which are related to some form of hypertension (Nwaedozie, 2000). In most samples the sodium content is moderately very low below WHO permissive level for domestic water. Carbonates (CO 2 3 ) and bicarbonates (HCO 3 ) are the major contributors to the total alkalinity. Naturally a total alkalinity up to 400mg/L is not a health hazard. Very low alkalinity is associated with low ph values and may indicate potential for problems due to corrosion of metal in plumbing systems. All water samples tested have low Carbonate and Bicarbonate alkalinity content. Well and borehole water have high bicarbonate content concentration range between mg HCO 3 /L than river water (10-41mg HCO 3 /L ). And carbonate content concentration is very low in all the sources of water (0 mg CO 2 3 ). Chloride (Cl - ) concentrations in drinking water are not expected to be beyond 250mg/L, it is easily detected in a salty taste of water. Water sample no 14 of well water sampled from Gbajibo has mg/l of chloride which is at a high level. Most of the samples fall within WHO permissive level standard of 250mg/L. According to Annoh (1997), excess chloride content in water and can impacts bad taste and cause corrosion in intestinal system when consumed. It is noted that the removal method of chloride concentration is expensive. Sulphate (S O 2 4 ) content in excess of (250 to 500ppm) 100 mg/l tends to give water a bitter taste and have a laxative effect on people not adapted to the water. In the water sample collected from the medium-sized households, the test revealed that most of the water sites have low sulphate content (ranging from 0 mg/l to 28mg/L in Kutigi borehole). Although most water sources in the study area are of low sulphate content when compared to WHO permissive level they are considered to be within the limits set standard. Odoemelan (1999) reported the presence of high sulphate from discharges of four industries located along Aba River. High sulphate concentration can cause intestinal irritation. Nitrite record range between 0.0 mg/l in most sources to 0.18 mg/l in river close to Kutigi. Nitrate (NO - 3 ) in excess of 45mg/L is of health significance especially to pregnant women and infants under six months. Although it s content is apparently tolerated by most adults. In the result, it is noted that nitrate content in the domestic water is at small scale ranging 68

7 between 0.00 mg/l in Kagara borehole to 28mg/L in River Wawa, these all fall within the allowable value range of 50mg/L. A Nitrate concentration of more than 50 mg/l impacts bitter taste to water and may cause physiological distress and in infant can cause methamoglobinemia. Nitrate fouls the water system and epidemiological studies predicted association between exposures to nitrate and gastric cancer, because of the reaction of nitrate with amine level diet forming acidic carcinogenic into sameness (WHO, 2007). Total dissolved solids (TDS) is the total amount of material remaining after evaporation of water. Permissive level value of less than 500 ppm (mg/l ) and up to 1,000 ppm (mg/l) can be tolerated. The high concentration of total dissolved solid ranges from Well in Kagara (638.5 ppm) to Well water in Paiko(771.8ppm), respectively which are majorly samples from well water. Muoghalu and Omocho (2000) reported that high TDS values have the tendency to absorb heat from the sun thereby raising the temperature and increasing the turbidity of water. Since all these fall within 500 ppm (mg/l) and 1,000 ppm (mgl) they can be tolerated with little health effects. According to Standard Organization of Nigeria,(2007), Manganese (Mn 2+ ) is a nuisance chemical that cause neurological disorder in human and causes troublesome stains and deposits on light coloured clothes and plumbing fixtures. Excessive amounts cause dark discolouration in some food and beverages with unpleasant taste. Only a maximum of 0.2 ppm (mg/l) is allowed level value and anything beyond it is dangerous to the health. Most of the sampled sources of water were within the good range of acceptable level of WHO standard. There is only very limited Escherichia coli content value that is permissible in any domestic consumable water (Cheebrough, 2003). Water samples with moderate content of Escherichia coli range between 0-10 Cfu/100ml in borehole water, Kuta, Ibeto, Zungeru, Mariga, Lapai, Paiko, Enagi, Gbajibo, Zugurma, and Wawa, while in Well water only Makunkele and Chanchaga that have moderate amount of Escherichia coli content between 0-10 that is according to Cheebrough (2003) at a permissive limit of WHO standard. The following water sources have a high content of Escherichia coli beyond a manageable level, Well water in Kagara (13 Cfu/100ml),well water in Zugurma (12Cfu/100ml),Well water in Lapai (12 Cfu/100ml), Well water in Kutigi (16Cfu/100ml) Well water in Wawa (17 Cfu/100ml) and in Table 2; Borehole water in Rijau (11Cfu/100ml), Borehole water in Chanchaga (35 Cfu/100ml) and in River Chanchaga water (11Cfu/100ml) River Kaduna at Zungeru (25 Cfu/100ml), River 69

8 Etswan in Lapai (81Cfu/100ml), River Paiko (106 Cfu/100ml),River Enagi (120 Cfu/100ml), River Ekulayi water in Zugurma (106Cfu/ml), River Wawa water in Wawa (52 Cfu/100ml)), and River water in Kutigi (21 Cfu/100ml)). Any source of water with Escherichia Coli value content beyond 10 cfu/ml could infect urinary tract, and easily cause bacteraemia, meningitis, diarrhea, and could also cause acute renal failure and haemolytic anaemia (Cheebrough, 2003). The samples with high content of Escherichia Coli are dangerous to health. Obviously, most surface sources of water like rivers and some shallow wells in Niger State require to be treated before being used for domestic purposes. In summary, the mean, standard deviation from the WHO standard is developed by using physico-chemical, biological and microbial constituent results from laboratory analysis. 70

9 Table 1: Mean, Standard deviation from WHO Water Quality Standard in Dry Season Parameters Well Water ( n= 13) Borehole Water (n = 14) River Water (n = 9) WHO limit Maximum E. Cond. µs/cm ± ± ± TDS mg/l ± ± ± ph 6.53 ± ± ± NO 3 - mg/l 3.61 ± ± ± SO 2-4 mg/l 5.69 ± ± ± NO - 2 mg/l 0.02 ± ± ± Na + mg/l ± ± ± K + mg/l ± ± ± Total Hardness mg/l ± ± ± Cl - mg/l ± ± ± Ca 2+ mg/l ± ± ± Mg 2+ mg/l ± ± ± HCO 3 - mg/l ± ± ± NM E. Coli Cfu/100mL 7 ± ± ± Total Coliform Cfu/100mL ± ± ± Source: Author s Fieldwork 71

10 Table 2: Mean, SD from WHO Water Quality Standard in Wet season Parameters Rainfall water Well Water ( n= 13) Bore hole Water (n = 14) River Water (n = 9) WHO Maximum limit E. Cond. µs/cm ± ± ± ± TDS mg/l ± ± ± ± ph 6.47 ± ± ± ± SO 2-4 mg/l 5.07 ± ± ± ± NO - 2 mg/l 0.01 ± ± ± ± Na + mg/l ± ± ± ± K + mg/l 9.89 ± ± ± ± Total Hardness mg/l ± ± ± ± Cl - mg/l ± ± ± ± Ca 2+ mg/l ± ± ± ± Mg 2+ mg/l ± ± ± ± HCO 3 - mg/l 68.5 ± ± ± ± 4.58 NM E. Coli Cfu/100mL 7.93 ± ± ± ± Total Cfu/100mL Coliform ± ± ± ± Source: Author s Fieldwork 72

11 Transnational Journal of Science and Technology June 2012 edition vol. 2, No.5 Most sources of water from where medium-sized households sought for water in Table 1, have their physico-chemical and microbial constituent s counts varying significantly from WHO standard specifications for drinking water. Electric Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Hardness;761.62±394.18,521.05µcm/l ±265.45, 0.8 mg/l ± 0.4, mg/l±108.13, respectively have their peak values in well water but low concentration of SO 4, 5.69 mg/l±5.88; Ca 2, 45.05mg/l ± 20.36; Mg, mg/l±23.94; HCO 3, mg/l ± and least in river water except E.Conductivity,498.86µcm ± in borehole. Constituents like Escherichia Coli, 58.89cfu/100ml±54.97 and Total Coliform cfu/100ml ± 0.8 have their peak in river water and least values in borehole water. Moreover revise is the case during the raining season as in Table 2. This situation is caused due to deteriorating nature of the environment through human activities and inability in managing waste from the household and farmlands. Seasonal variation in the quality of water are prominent since most constituents are of low content during the dry season and high in the raining season beyond the WHO standard. Conclusion The quality of water obtained in most localities have their physico-chemical, microbial and metallic constituent below the World Health Organization standard. The well water is even found to contain high level of Escherichia coli with a high level of Total coliform. Based on these findings, the study recommends the need to create public awareness in respect of the dangers associated with the consumption of sub-standard water; strengthen the existing water policy by ensuring adequate maintenance of water treatment plants; and establish a workable policy of having maximum threshold of twenty-five households per borehole or ten households to a well by water project groups. In addition, water management agencies should be independently policed by the user community and be politically and financially accountable to the government; solar powered/electric powered boreholes should be established alongside water reservoir tanks; modern techniques of water storage and treatment plants should be provided in every medium-sized towns; and the government and 73

12 Transnational Journal of Science and Technology June 2012 edition vol. 2, No.5 communities should collaborate in creating maintenance culture and potentials for sustainable water supply in Niger State. References: Ajibade, L.T. (2004), Assessment of Water quality along River Asa, Ilorin, Nigeria. The Environmentalist,(24) Annon, J.(1997), National water Rehabilitation project (NWRP). Water quality testing and control course, National Water Resources Institute Kaduna Balogun, O. ( 2001), The Development of Public Water Supply Scheme in Kwara State, in Igbozurike U.M (eds), Corporate Role in Rural Development, Proceedings of the fifth National Seminar on Rural Development organized by the School of Environmental Studies, Imo State University, Okigwe 1991, Cheesbrough, M. (2003), Water quality analysis. District Laboratory practice in Tropical countries (2) Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom Mohammad, S. (2007), Evaluation of Spatial sources of water supply distribution in Bida Local government area. An unpublished B. Tech Dissertation, Federal University of Technology, Minna. Morenikeji, W., Sanusi, Y.A,and Jinadu, A.M. (2000), The Role of Private Voluntary Organizations in Community and Settlement Development in Niger State, A ResearchReport Submitted to the Centre for Research and Documentation, Kano. Muoghalu, L. N. and Omocho, V. (2000), Environmental Health Hazards Resulting from Awka Abattoir. African Journal Environmental Studies 2: Niger State Ministry of Land, Housing and Survey (2001 ), Surveyed Niger State Map of New Local Government Area Councils Socio-economic activities. Nwaedozie, J.M (2000), Environmental Pollution: A case study of waste water effluent parameters of some Industries in Kaduna. African Journal Environmental studies 1(189): Obaje, N. G (2009),Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria. Le cture Notes in Earth Sciences. Published by Springer Dordreccht Heidelberg, London. New York. Odokuma, L.O., Okpokwasili, G.S.C. (1993), Seasonal influence on inorganic Anion Monitoring of the new Calabar River, Nigeria. Environmental Management 17(4): Olasehinde, P. I. (2010), The Groundwater of Nigeria: A Sol ution to Sustainable 74

13 Transnational Journal of Science and Technology June 2012 edition vol. 2, No.5 National Water Needs. Inaugural Lecture Series 17, Federal University of Technology, Minna. September, UNEP/ WHO (1996), Water quality Monitoring, A practical guide to the design an implementation of freshwater quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes edited by Jamie Bartram and Richard Balance. Printed in Great Britain by TJ Press (Padstow) Ltd, Padsow, Cornwell. 75