Sustainable employment: the importance of intrinsically valuable work and an age-supportive climate

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1 The International Journal of Human Resource Management ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: Sustainable employment: the importance of intrinsically valuable work and an age-supportive climate Karen van Dam, Tinka van Vuuren & Sofie Kemps To cite this article: Karen van Dam, Tinka van Vuuren & Sofie Kemps (2017) Sustainable employment: the importance of intrinsically valuable work and an age-supportive climate, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28:17, , DOI: / To link to this article: The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Published online: 17 Feb Submit your article to this journal Article views: 1153 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 1 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at Download by: [ ] Date: 26 November 2017, At: 05:02

2 The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 2017 VOL. 28, NO. 17, Sustainable employment: the importance of intrinsically valuable work and an age-supportive climate Karen van Dam a, Tinka van Vuuren b and Sofie Kemps c OPEN ACCESS a Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands; b Faculty of Management, Science and Technology, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands; c Faculty of Social Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands ABSTRACT The aging workforce emphasizes the importance of sustainable employment, that is the extent to which workers are able and willing to remain working now and in the future. This raises the question how organizations can design work contexts that contribute to sustainable employment. This study investigated the role of a intrinsically motivating job (intrinsic job value) and an age-supportive climate for three indicators of employees sustainable employment: employability, work engagement and affective commitment. The questionnaire was completed by 119 office employees (response 35%) of a Dutch public transport organization. A SEM analysis revealed that intrinsic job value was strongly and positively related with all three indicators of sustainable employment for employees of all ages. In contrast, an age-supportive climate was especially important for older employees work engagement and affective commitment. This study has implications for practice and for research of sustainable employment, HRM and aging. Introduction KEYWORDS Affective commitment; age-supportive climate; employability; intrinsic job value; older employees; sustainable employment; work engagement Sustainable employment has become a topic of great concern. Owing to the aging and dejuvination and rejuvenation of the workforce, companies will have to rely increasingly on the contribution of older workers. Moreover, the rising costs of retirement necessitate people to work longer than they once did. Given this situation, the sustainable labor market participation of older employees has become increasingly important. At different levels (e.g. governments, organizations, HRM departments) initiatives have been started to promote workers sustainable employment and extend the labor participation of older workers (Billett, Dymock, Johnson, & Martin, 2011; Semeijn, Van Dam, Van Vuuren, & Van der Heijden, 2015). Researchers have similarly paid attention to the aging workforce, focusing CONTACT Karen van Dam karen.vandam@ou.nl 2016 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License ( which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way.

3 2450 K. van Dam et al. on how age relates to, for instance, job performance (Ng & Feldman, 2008), work motivation (Kooij, De Lange, Jansen, Kanfer, & Dikkers, 2011) and job attitudes (Ng & Feldman, 2010). However, there has been limited research on the importance of job design and work conditions for employees of different ages (Truxillo, Cadiz, Rineer, Zaniboni, & Fraccaroli, 2012). To substantiate HRM policies and actions in the field, it is important to better understand the work conditions that contribute to older workers sustainable employment. This study aimed to investigate the role of two workplace characteristics for employees sustainable employment. First, we focused on employees perceptions of job features that are intrinsically rewarding, i.e. intrinsic job value. A job is considered to have intrinsic value when the task responsibilities are seen as meaningful, challenging and developmental and when employees are recognized for their contribution. These aspects are considered motivating in general (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and for older employees specifically because they relate to the emotionally meaningful goals that are increasingly pursued over the lifespan (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). Still, these work aspects are often found to decrease or even lack in the work situation of older employees (Truxillo et al., 2012; Van der Heijden, 2012; Zacher & Frese, 2009). The second aspect relates to employees perceptions of an age-supportive climate. Whereas, previous research has focused on various types of climate, only very few studies have addressed age-related climate (e.g. Cadiz, 2010). Evidence indicates that employers and managers invest little in the work situation of older workers, and generally hold older employees in low esteem (Billett et al., 2011). This might limit older workers opportunities and support at work (Armstrong-Stassen & Schlosser, 2008) and can negatively affect older employees sustained labor participation. A lack of opportunities and support can also serve as a negative signal that might lower older employees motivation (Connelly, Certo, Ireland, & Reutzel, 2011). Three indicators of sustainable employment were considered crucial requirements for employees to continue working in a satisfactory way, i.e. workers employability, work engagement and affective commitment. These indicators have been recognized by researchers, organizations and social parties alike as important indicators of the labor participation of employees in general, and older employees in particular (e.g. Semeijn et al., 2015; SER, 2009; Truxillo et al., 2012). By focusing on the work conditions that contribute to older workers sustainable employment, this study aims to contribute to the literatures on sustainable employment, HRM and aging. Theoretical background and conceptual framework Sustainable employment The concept of sustainability originally referred to how people and institutions handle the environment. In 1972, the United Nations defined sustainability as a

4 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2451 general worldview according to which people should strive to fulfill the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations (Docherty, Kira, & Shani, 2009). Relating the concept of sustainability to employment implies that employers should try to organize work in such a way that their human resources are fostered rather than exploited, in order to allow these resources to be deployed in the future (Docherty et al., 2009; Hedge, 2008; Mohrman & Worley, 2010). As such, sustainable employment can be considered an outcome of a sustainable HRM approach. Sustainable employment has been defined as the extent to which workers are able and willing to remain working now and in the future (SER, 2009; Van Vuuren, 2012). Although sustainable employment is often mentioned in reference to an aging workforce, it should be noted that sustainability relates to workers of all ages (Van Vuuren & Van Dam, 2013). In order to stay in the workforce and become an older worker, it is important that employees work in a healthy, motivated and competent manner, whatever their age. A number of indicators of sustainable employment have been distinguished. In particular employability, work engagement and organizational commitment have been mentioned as important factors underlying sustainable employment (Ilmarinen, Tuomi, & Seitsamo, 2005; SER, 2009). These aspects relate to human strength, health and functioning in organizations and are considered crucial for employees to remain and perform at work (Fugate, Kinicki, & Ashforth, 2004; Semeijn et al., 2015), and can be enhanced by organizational interventions. Employability Employability refers to individuals ability to adequately fulfill work in current and future jobs, inside and outside the current organization (Berntson, Sverke, & Marklund, 2006; Fugate et al., 2004; Van Dam, 2004). Although the opportunity to retain or find work might also depend on labor market characteristics, it is generally noted that individuals characteristics, such as their abilities, skills and knowledge, contribute to employability and labor market participation (Fugate et al., 2004; Semeijn et al., 2015). To remain employable and avoid skills obsolescence, it is important for employees to continuously develop and update their skills and expertise (Van Loo, De Grip, & De Steur, 2001). Employability directly affects individuals attractiveness for the internal and external labor market (Fugate et al., 2004), and is therefore of crucial importance for employees sustainable employment (SER, 2009). Work engagement Work engagement relates to a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Vigor, also referred to as vitality, is characterized by high energy levels and possessing mental resilience at work. Dedication implies being strongly involved at work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm and challenge. Absorption is characterized by being fully concentrated and happily engrossed

5 2452 K. van Dam et al. in a job, whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work. In short, engaged employees have high energy levels, are highly involved in their work and experience work as being fun (Avery, McKay, & Wilson, 2007). Engaged employees are better in mobilizing personal resources, report better health and perform better on in-role and extra-role tasks (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). They are also inclined to postpone retirement (Van Dam, Van der Vorst, & Van der Heijden, 2009). Work engagement is therefore expected to be an important indicator of sustainable employment. Affective commitment Organizational commitment has been defined as the degree to which an employee identifies with, and is involved in and attached to an organization (Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979). In the literature, three forms of commitment have been distinguished: affective commitment, i.e. the emotional attachment employees have developed toward the organization, continuance commitment, i.e. employees attachment owing to investments and costs associated with leaving the organization, and normative commitment, i.e. employees feelings of being obliged to remain with the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). We included affective commitment and not continuance or normative commitment as an indicator of sustainable employment for several reasons. First, employees who want to belong to the organization (i.e. with high affective commitment) are more likely than those who need to belong (i.e. with high continuance commitment) or who feel obliged to belong (i.e. with high normative commitment) to exert effort on behalf of the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Employees who are strongly affective committed have been found to perform at a higher level, avoid being absent and turnover less often than those who are less committed (Tett & Meyer, 1993). Second, recent changes in careers from traditional to boundary careers (Hall, 2002) have changed the relevance of continuous and normative commitment and increased the role of affective commitment. Moreover, affective commitment might also slow down the process of work disengagement that happens when older employees get closer to their retirement age (Damman, Henkens, & Kalmijn, 2013). Although affective commitment refers to an attitude toward a specific organization, it is still considered an important indicator of employees sustainable employment because the European labor market offers few opportunities for older employees, who consequently are inclined to stay with their organization. For these reasons, affective commitment is considered an important indicator of sustainable employment. An age-supportive work environment Extensive evidence indicates that employees work environment relates to a wide range of important individual, group and organizational outcomes, such as in-role and extra-role performance, motivation, health and learning (Morgeson &

6 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2453 Humphrey, 2006; Parker, 2014; Truxillo et al., 2012). Multiple models have been developed for the relationships between work characteristics and these outcomes (see Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). These models generally assume that the specified relationships apply to employees of all ages. Recent developments however challenge this assumption. As lifespan development approaches suggest, people change throughout their life (e.g. Carstensen et al., 1999), therefore their needs and motivation at work, and their responses to the work context might change as well (Heckhausen & Wrosch, 2010; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004; Truxillo et al., 2012). Findings indicate that intrinsically rewarding job features, such as meaningfulness and recognition, are preferred over extrinsically rewarding job features, such as salary and promotion (Baltes & Dickson, 2001; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). Moreover, older and younger workers with similar jobs have been found to experience differential treatments and opportunities at work (Kite, Stockdale, Whitley, & Johnson, 2005), which can endanger their sustainable employment (Cadiz, 2010). In order to better understand the importance of the work environment for older workers sustainable employment, the current study focused on the intrinsic value of the job and age-supportive climate as predictors of sustainable employment, and on the role of age in these predictions. Intrinsic job value and sustainable employment Work on age-related changes indicates that employees motivation, needs and values change over time (Heckhausen & Wrosch, 2010; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004; Kooij et al., 2011; Ng & Feldman, 2010; Warr, 2001) and that some work aspects become more important than others when employees age (Baltes & Dickson, 2001; Stork, 2008). Recent studies (e.g. Rineer, 2012; Zacher & Frese, 2009) found that employees respond differently to the work situation, depending on age. As Truxillo et al. (2012) note, certain job characteristics may lead to increased outcomes for one age group more than for another. Several explanations have been provided to explain these changes in motivation and preferences for job characteristics. One such explanation, i.e. selection, optimization and compensation theory (Baltes & Dickson, 2001) refers to age-related losses and gains. Aging is generally associated with losses in fluid intelligence (i.e. working memory and attention) and in physical strength (Warr, 2001). Owing to these losses, some work aspects, such as long working hours and competition, will become increasingly less attractive for older workers (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). At the same time, older workers experience gains that is increases in resources such as crystallized intelligence, work-related expertise and skills (Ackerman, 2000). Accordingly, they will prefer jobs and tasks that allow them to use and optimize these resources (Baltes & Dickson, 2001). This would imply that development opportunities and challenging tasks are important job aspects for older employees. Another explanation, i.e. socio-emotional selectivity theory (Carstensen et al., 1999), emphasizes the importance of employees time perspective for the selection and pursuit of goals. When time is perceived as being more open-ended, as in

7 2454 K. van Dam et al. younger workers, people will give more priority to knowledge acquisition and career advancement. Conversely, when time is perceived as limited, as in older workers, people will focus more on the present, emphasize emotional goals instead of knowledge-related goals, and prefer work that is intrinsically and affectively rewarding. This would imply that meaningful work and receiving recognition are important job aspects for older employees. Research has generally supported these notions, showing that older employees more strongly value intrinsically rewarding features of the job, such as meaningful work and appreciation from others, than extrinsically rewarding work outcomes, such as performance evaluations, benefits and promotion (Kooij et al., 2011; Sterns & Huyck, 2001). Older employees are even inclined to postpone retirement when they expect their job to remain challenging and rewarding, providing them with learning opportunities (Van Dam, 2009; Van Dam et al., 2009). Together, this evidence suggests that there are a number of work aspects that contribute to the intrinsic value of a job, and therefore might be especially relevant for older employees sustainable employment. The present study focused on employees perceptions of four of these job aspects: meaningfulness, recognition, challenge and learning value. Work is perceived as meaningful when it implies a sense of accomplishment, purpose and contribution (Fairlie, 2011; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Recognition refers to the acknowledgment one receives for ones contribution to the organization, and is often seen as a part of the nonmaterial rewards that motivate employees (Brown & Leigh, 1996). Challenge refers to task elements that are somewhat difficult, require employees to use their potential, and appeal to curiosity, creativity and the enjoyment of solving complex problems (Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994). Learning value refers to the developmental experiences that reside in the work environment (Poell, Van Dam, & Van den Berg, 2004) and results in the expansion of employees competencies (Nikolova, Van Ruysseveldt, De Witte, & Syroit, 2014). These four aspects should not be considered objective task characteristics, but instead refer to employees perceptions of job aspects that contribute to the intrinsic value of their job because they fulfill important needs. According to Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), the fulfillment of basic psychological needs (i.e. autonomy, competence and psychological relatedness) is crucial for optimal functioning and personal well-being and foster employees intrinsic motivation. A job that is meaningful will address the need for autonomy and for relatedness. The recognition employees receive for their work will address the need for competence and for relatedness. Learning value and challenge will address the need for competence and for autonomy. In turn, jobs that have high intrinsic value will foster employees sustainable employment. Employability will be furthered when the job is challenging and has learning potential, because these aspects increase employees skills and abilities (Nikolova et al., 2014; Wielenga-Meijer, 2010). Moreover, if work is perceived as meaningful and provides employees with recognition, employees are more likely to maintain their employability in order to increase job security (Van Dam, 2004).

8 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2455 Hypothesis 1: Intrinsic job value is positively related to employability. Similarly, intrinsic job value will relate to work engagement. Work engagement is generally considered the outcome of a motivational cycle that is triggered by specific work aspects, i.e. job resources (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). There is ample evidence that these four aspects of intrinsic job value work operate as job resources. Several studies have found that employees with meaningful work experienced higher levels of work engagement (Fairlie, 2011), more intrinsic motivation and a stronger sense of absorption (Thomas, 2000). Challenge and learning opportunities at work have been positively related to work engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Recognition from colleagues and supervisors has been found to contribute to employees vitality and health (Van der Heijden, Van Dam, & Hasselhorn, 2009). Hypothesis 2: Intrinsic job value is positively related to work engagement. Perceptions of intrinsic job value will similarly relate to employees affective commitment. Affective commitment generally results from employees positive believes concerning the way they are treated and supported by the organization (Shore & Wayne, 1993). Providing employees with work that is meaningful, appreciated, challenging and developmental is therefore likely to increase levels of affective commitment. Employees with meaningful work have been found more committed to their jobs (Thomas, 2000). Recognition, challenge and learning opportunities have been similarly related to affective commitment (Buckley, Sanders, Shih, & Hampton, 2000; Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 2002). Armstrong-Stassen and Schlosser (2008) found a positive relationship between development opportunities and older employees affective commitment to the organization. Hypothesis 3: Intrinsic job value is positively related to affective commitment. Although these intrinsic work aspects are considered important for the sustainable employment of employees of all ages, they will be especially important for older employees. In line with lifespan theory (e.g. Baltes & Dickson, 2001; Carstensen et al., 1999), older employees have been found to value intrinsic work characteristics more than younger employees (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). Older employees find it important to be challenged (Stork, 2008), to use and develop their potential (Feinsod, Davenport, & Arthurs, 2005; Van Dam et al., 2009), and to be recognized for their contribution (Van Dam, 2009). Yet, these aspects are often less evident in the jobs of older workers, who often receive less development opportunities and recognition than younger employees, and end up in jobs with low learning value (Feinsod et al., 2005; Templer, Armstrong-Stassen, & Cattaneo, 2010; Warr, Miles, & Platts, 2001). However, satisfaction from using skills, being creative and gaining a sense of accomplishment are considered important factors for older employees to remain motivated (Schalk, 2004). Also, meaningful work, development opportunities and being appreciated have been shown to affect the decision of older employees to continue working (Feinsod et al., 2005; Templer et al., 2010; Van Dam et al., 2009). Thus, providing employees with work that

9 2456 K. van Dam et al. values their contribution and appeals to their abilities is expected to more strongly affect older employees sustainable employment than younger employees sustainable employment (Kooij et al., 2011; Semeijn et al., 2015). Hypothesis 4: Age moderates the relationships between intrinsic job value and the three indicators of sustainable employment, employability, work engagement, affective commitment, such that the relationships are stronger for older employees. Age-supportive climate and sustainable employment To enhance sustainable employment, organizations and work settings additionally need to maintain a supportive climate for older employees. An age-supportive climate refers to the different ways (i.e. policies, procedures and practices) in which the organization, its leaders, and its employees encourage and value the contribution of older employees (Cadiz, 2010). Underlying an age-supportive climate is the belief that into old age people remain active in many areas (Bal, De Jong, Jansen, & Bakker, 2012; Charles & Carstensen, 2010; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004), and that aging workers may desire to continue working until, or even after, their official retirement age (Armstrong-Stassen & Schlosser, 2008; Gobeski & Beehr, 2009). Through practices and social norms, organizations can affect how employees experience their age and perceive their opportunities and abilities for development and retention (Armstrong-Stassen & Schlosser, 2008; Truxillo et al., 2012). The presence of opportunities and support might also serve as a signal that the organization values the competencies and input of older employees (Connelly et al., 2011). Unfortunately, the existence of an age-supportive climate is not always evident. In many organizations, the contribution of older employees is not greatly valued (Finkelstein & Farrell, 2007), and the opportunity for older employees to engage in interesting tasks, job transitions and development activities is limited (Billett et al., 2011; Truxillo et al., 2012). This lack of support for older workers might be related to the belief that with increasing age people withdraw from their role in society and work, a belief that has been challenged recently (Bal et al., 2012; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). Moreover, research indicates the presence of several persistent stereotypes about older workers, relating older workers to, for instance, decreased performance, health and learning motivation (Kite et al., 2005; Ng & Feldman, 2012; Posthuma & Campion, 2009). These stereotypes might translate into daily practices and procedures, and result in a workplace climate that is little age-supportive (Billett et al., 2011; Finkelstein & Farrell, 2007). For instance, the stereotype of decreased performance and learning motivation might lead to fewer development and career opportunities for older employees, and as such threaten older workers employability. James, McKechnie, Swanberg, and Besen (2013) noticed that age discrimination was related to lower levels of employee engagement.

10 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2457 Recently, researchers have started to investigate the role of age-related climate for older employees work outcomes, using different climate conceptions, referring to both age-supportive procedures and practices, (i.e. (job) development climate) and age unsupportive procedures and practices (e.g. age bias climate and age discrimination climate). Armstrong-Stassen and Schlosser (2008) found that perceptions of job development climate (i.e. the degree to which the job situation promotes continuous learning and provides flexibility to acquire new knowledge and skills) was positively related to older (50 70 years) workers affective commitment and intention to remain with the organization. Conversely, Kunze, Boehm, and Bruch (2011) noticed that perceptions of an age-discrimination climate were associated with lower levels of affective commitment at the individual level, and with lower firm performance at the organizational level. Similarly, Cadiz (2010) observed how a climate that is based on age biases related negatively to affective commitment and positively to turnover intention. Bal et al. (2012) distinguished two types of climate: accommodating climate with procedures and practices that focus on accommodating older employees in a process of graduate withdrawal from the workforce, and development climate that stresses the continuous development of all workers. While there were no direct relationships between these climate types and employees motivation to continue working after retirement, both climates moderated the impact of I-deals that is the idiosyncratic negotiated agreements between the individual employee and the employer that may enable older workers to adjust their work situation in such a way that they can remain working. The relationship between I-deals and continuation motivation was stronger when the climate did not push older workers towards retirement (accommodative climate), but instead encouraged workers to develop themselves and use their knowledge and experience (development climate). Despite their different conceptualizations of age-related climate, the outcomes of these studies suggest that procedures and practices that value, encourage and facilitate older employees contribution, performance and development will enhance older employees employability, work motivation and affective commitment, and as such will impact their sustainable employment. Although such a climate might be effective for all workers, we expected that it is more important for older workers, and therefore we predicted that age will strengthen this relationship. Hypothesis 5: Age moderates the relationships between age-supportive climate and the three indicators of sustainable employment (employability, work engagement, affective commitment) such that these relationships will be positive and significant only for older employees. Method Participants and procedure Participants were 119 office employees (response 35%) of a Dutch public transport organization working for different departments (e.g. marketing, finance, telesales

11 2458 K. van Dam et al. and communication). The mail survey included an introductory letter, explaining the objective and relevance of the study, promising anonymity and providing instructions for returning the survey. Mean age was 43.3 years (SD = 10.6); 32.8% were older than 50 years; 47.9% were male; mean tenure with the organization was 7.3 years (SD = 7.4). Measures Unless otherwise indicated, a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used, with higher scores reflecting higher values of the variable. Intrinsic job value To measure intrinsic job value, 20 items were derived from existing scales that referred to the four aspects. Meaningful work was assessed with Kristensen and Borg s (2003) scale for meaningful work (e.g. My work is important ). Recognition was measured with items from the scales of Pejtersen, Kristensen, Borg, and Bjorner (2010), and Siegrist, Wahrendorf, Von dem Knesebeck, Jürges, and Börsch-Supan (2007) (e.g. I receive the respect and esteem I deserve for my work ). Challenge was measured with items from Amabile et al. s (1994) Work Preference Inventory (e.g. My job offers me many challenges ). Learning-value was measured with items of Bezuijen, Van Dam, Van den Berg, and Thierry s (2010) scale (e.g. I learn a lot from the work I am doing ). Although the 20-item scale showed good internal consistency reliability (α =.91), a confirmatory factor analysis indicated insufficient fit (χ 2 = , df = 126; CFI =.86; TLI =.83; RMSEA =.11). Further analyses indicated that a 12-item scale with three items for each aspect had good fit (χ 2 = , df = 50; CFI =.94; TLI =.92; RMSEA =.08). A four-factor model, with the aspects of intrinsic job value as separate scales, provided insufficient fit (χ 2 = , df = 48; CFI =.87; TLI =.85; RMSEA =.10), owing to unexplained residuals. Therefore, the theoretical model was tested using this shortened 12-item scale (α =.89). Age-supportive climate We focused at individual-level climate perceptions, because employees might differ in their perceptions of an age-supportive work environment owing to differences in, for instance, departments, work units and supervisors. Loyalis (2009) fouritem scale (α =.78) was used referring to organizational practices towards older employees (e.g. In this organization, older employees knowledge and skills are highly respected ). Sustainable employment Sustainable employment was indicated by three scales, employability, work engagement and affective commitment. Employability was measured with Berntson

12 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2459 et al. s (2006) seven-item scale (α =.92) indicating one s employability inside and outside the organization (e.g. My skills are highly sought after at the labor market and I could get another, similar job without much problems ). Work engagement was measured using Schaufeli and Bakker s (2004) nine-item UBES scale (α =.91) (e.g. I feel fit and strong while working ). Affective commitment was measured with five items of the Dutch translation (De Gilder, Van den Heuvel, & Ellemers, 1997) of Allen and Meyer s (2001) affective commitment scale (α =.81) (e.g. I feel emotionally attached to this organization ). Demographic characteristics Several demographic characteristics were included: age, gender and tenure. Data analysis The data were analyzed using a two-step procedure. First, the measurement model was tested using confirmatory factor analysis. Four nested models were investigated. Model 1 was a single-factor model that treated all items as indicators of a single latent variable; Model 2 was a two-factor model that distinguished the predictors from the dependent variables; Model 3 was a four-factor model with one predictor and three dependent variables; Model 4 was a five-factor model that distinguished between the two predictors and the three dependent variables. Second, the hypotheses and fit of the research model were tested with structural equations modeling (SEM) with maximum-likelihood (ML) estimation using manifest variables. To establish the moderating effect of age, predictors were first standardized and then multiplied. Adding a product term to the model might violate the assumption of the ML approach of parameter estimation that all variables in the model are distributed multivariate normal (Hu, Bentler, & Kano, 1992). In case of violation, ML might produce incorrect standard errors although the degree to which this will happen is unknown. Whereas different statistical techniques have been proposed to deal with this problem (see Cortina, Chen, & Dunlap, 2001), some research suggests that ML estimation is superior in terms of bias in parameter estimates (Hu et al., 1992; Jaccard & Wan, 1995). Hu et al. (1992) found that ML performed well even under kurtosis values of 1, 2 and 5. Therefore, we followed Cortina et al. s (2001) suggestion to test for multivariate normality of the interaction variables by looking at possible departures from kurtosis before including them into the model. The tests of the measurement and research model were conducted with the AMOS 18.0 software package (Arbuckle, 2010). Several fit indices were used: the χ 2 /df ratio, the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), the comparative-fit-index (CFI), and the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA). A good fit is indicated when χ 2 /df < 3.00; TLI and CFI >.90, and RMSEA <.08 (Kline, 2005). Complementary to the SEM analyses, simple slopes analyses using SPSS were conducted to assess the significance and direction of the interaction slopes (Aiken

13 2460 K. van Dam et al. & West, 1991). Simple slopes analysis helps to determine whether the predictions for low and high age differ from 0. For each predictor, two equations were constructed replacing the predictor with its z-value being 1 standard deviation either above or below average. In addition, plots of the interactions effects were drawn. Results Confirmatory factor analyses As the fit indices in Table 1 shows, each subsequent model implied a better fit, with Model 4 providing sufficient fit (χ 2 (df = ) = , p <.001; χ 2 / df = 1.63; CFI =.92; TLI =.90; RMSEA =.06), and a significant improvement in comparison to the other models (Δχ 2 = , p <.001). Together, these outcomes indicate that the scales measured distinct constructs. Accordingly, scale scores were calculated representing the variables. Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, correlations and reliabilities of the variables. Preliminary analyses Preliminary analyses showed that gender and tenure did not add significant variance to the prediction of the outcome variables; therefore, they were not included in the analyses. Predictors and moderator (age) were standardized and multiplied to obtain product variables. Establishing the kurtosis for these product variables resulted in a value of 3.88 for age-supportive climate age and 2.53 for intrinsic job value age. These values are close to 3 and within the range of 1 and 5 (see Hu et al., 1992) suggesting that the product variables are unlikely to violate the ML assumption of SEM. Table 1. Fit indices of nested factor models, standardized ML estimates. Model RMSEA CFI TLI χ 2 df χ 2 /df Model comparison Δχ factor model factor model Model 1 Model * 3. 4-factor model Model 2 Model * 4. 5-factor model Model 3 Model * * p <.001. Table 2. Means, standard deviations, correlations and reliability estimates of the study variables. Variable Mean SD Age Intrinsic job value (.91) Age-supportive climate **.36*** (.78) Employability **.44***.18* (.92) Work engagement **.56***.26**.34*** (.91) Affective commitment ***.28**.12.51*** (.81) Note. N = 119. * p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p <.001.

14 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2461 Model fit and hypotheses tests The estimated regression coefficients are presented in Table 3. The hypothesized model showed sufficient fit: χ 2 (df = 3, N = 119) = 7.14, p =.07; χ 2 / df = 2.38; CFI =.98; TLI =.93; RMSEA =.08). Age was significantly related to employability (β =.29, p <.01) and work engagement (β =.19, p <.01), indicating that older employees reported less employability and work engagement, and as such showed less sustainable employment. Age was unrelated to affective commitment. Supporting Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3, intrinsic job value was significantly related to all three indicators of sustainable employment, employability (β =.34, p <.001), work engagement (β =.61, p <.001) and affective commitment (β =.46, p <.001). The findings also indicated that age significantly moderated the relationship between intrinsic job value work and work engagement (β =.20, p <.01). A simple slopes analysis showed that this relationship was stronger for older employees (β =.78, t = 7.11, p <.001) than for younger employees (β =.49, t = 4.94, p <.001). For employability, the moderation effect almost reached the 5% significance level (β =.16, p =.07). A simple slopes analysis indicated that the relationship between intrinsic job value and employability was stronger for older employees (β =.50, t = 4.03, p <.001) than for younger employees (β =.17, t = 1.33, p =.19). For affective commitment, no moderation effect was found (β =.07, ns). Given the two interaction effects, we considered Hypothesis 4 partly supported. These interaction effects are graphically presented in Figures 1 and 2. Hypothesis 5, relating to the importance of an age-supportive climate for older employees sustainable employment, was partly supported. There were interaction effects for two indicators of sustainable employment: work engagement (β =.26, p <.001) and affective commitment (β =.21, p <.01). Regarding work engagement, the simple slopes analysis showed that the relationship between age-supportive climate and work engagement was positive for older employees (β =.24, t = 2.61, p <.05), while the relationship was negative for younger employees (β =.22, t = 2.25, p <.05). For employability, the simple slopes analysis showed a similar interaction effect. The relationship between age-supportive climate and employability was positive for older employees (β =.31, t = 2.79, p <.01), while the Table 3. Estimated regression coefficients (β) from the structural model. Employability Work engagement Affective commitment Predictor β β β Age.29**.19**.07 Intrinsic job value.34***.61***.46*** Age-supportive climate Interaction: age intrinsic job value **.03 Interaction: age age-supportive climate.07.26***.21** R².25***.52***.27*** Note. N = p <.10; ** p <.01; *** p <.00.

15 2462 K. van Dam et al. Figure 1. Age moderating the intrinsic job value employability relationship. Figure 2. Age moderating the intrinsic job value work engagement relationship. relationship was negative (but not significant) for younger employees (β =.20, t = 1.24, p =.22). These interaction effects are graphically presented in Figures 3 and 4. Discussion Overall, the findings supported the importance of an age-supportive work context for sustainable employment. Employees reported higher levels of employability, work engagement and affective commitment when their job had intrinsic value and was perceived as meaningful, recognized, challenging and developmental. As such, our findings align with both traditional and modern models of job design (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Hackman & Oldham, 1976; Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006)

16 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2463 Figure 3. Age moderating the age-supportive climate work engagement relationship. Figure 4. Age moderating the age-supportive climate affective commitment relationship. emphasizing the role of job and work design as a powerful vehicle (Parker, 2014, p. 661) for employee motivation, development, and commitment. For instance, the essence of the job characteristics model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) is that certain attributes of jobs (such as autonomy) increases perceptions of meaningfulness and challenge which in turn relate to positive outcomes. Subsequent research has supported the notion that enriched jobs can promote motivation, learning and effective coping (Parker, 2014). More recently, the job demands-resources model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) proposes, among other things, that job resources contribute to a motivational process and will lead to increased work engagement. Our findings suggest that the job aspects that were investigated in the present

17 2464 K. van Dam et al. study, meaningfulness, recognition, challenge and learning value, served as job resources that relate to employees sustainable employment. While these intrinsic job aspects were important for the sustainable employment of all employees, they mattered more for older employees employability and work engagement. Working in a job with low intrinsic value appeared to be more cumbersome for older employees than for younger employees, resulting in lower levels of employability and work engagement. These findings support previous notions in the literature that warn for the effects of simple tasks and reduced learning experiences for older employees sustainable employment (Schalk, 2004; van der Heijden, 2012; van Loo et al., 2001). Older workers do not only appreciate meaningful, rewarding, developmental and challenging jobs (cf Posthuma & Campion, 2009; van Dam et al., 2009), but they also need such jobs in order to keep up with fast developments within and outside the organization. Lowered employability and work engagement can decrease older employees contribution to the organization and undermine their position and mobility at the internal and external labor market (Fugate et al., 2004). For affective commitment, no such age-effect was found; apparently, the positive relationship between intrinsic job value and employees affective commitment holds for all employees, regardless of their age. Moreover, the findings showed that perceptions of an age-supportive climate mattered for older employees work engagement and affective commitment. Older employees reported higher levels of work engagement and affective commitment when they perceived an age-supportive climate. This finding indicates that supervisors and colleagues should try to create a climate that values the contribution of older employees and provides the same opportunities that are offered to younger employees. At the same time, we found a negative relationship of age-supportive climate with younger employees work engagement, suggesting that organizations focus on stimulating and appreciating older employees might have a negative side-effect on younger employees work engagement. It is possible that the age-supportive practices had resulted in a situation in which older employees were likely to stay in attractive positions, and show little internal mobility, thus making it difficult for younger employees to enhance their careers and move to better positions (Van der Heijden, 2012). HRM measures are necessary to make sure that employees of all ages are treated fairly and receive similar career development opportunities. However, new research is needed to repeat this finding and examine this explanation. Limitations and implications This study has several limitations that should be addressed in future research. First, the data were obtained using a cross-sectional design which hinders causal interpretations. Future research using several waves is needed to address the issue of causality, and pay attention to possible changes in sustainable employment

18 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 2465 over time. Moreover, because all information came from one source, a common-method bias may exist (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Although the implications of common-method bias are subject of discussion (Spector, 2006) and the outcomes of the confirmatory factor analyses indicated that common method bias was not an issue in this study, future research may try to include other sources, such as ratings from peers and supervisors, thus combining subjective and more objective information. Another limitation concerned sample restrictions; the study was conducted in one organization with mainly white-collar employees. Although participants worked in several different departments, future research might collect data in a number of different companies, using a wider range of jobs in order to establish whether our findings can be generalized. Despite its limitations, this study has several implications. The findings indicate that work context factors are related to sustainable employment. Previous studies (e.g. Van Dam et al., 2009) already found that expectations of a challenging and rewarding work environment contribute to older employees intention to continue working. This study provides additional information by focusing on employees perceptions of real (and not expected) work conditions, showing how these perceptions relate to older workers employability, work engagement and affective commitment. Our findings go beyond those from other studies showing positive effects of a general supportive climate and organizational support by focusing on age-supportive climate perceptions in particular (cf Cadiz, 2010). The findings indicate that it is crucial for older employees sustainable employment to work in a intrinsically and extrinsically stimulating and supportive environment. In such an environment, older workers are likely to retain high levels of employability, work engagement and affective commitment. They are also likely to postpone retirement (Van Dam et al., 2009). The findings have several practical implications. Organizations and supervisors can increase workers sustainable employment by paying more attention to individual workers job situation, creating jobs that are meaningful, challenging, developmental and potentially rewarding. Supervisors might discuss with older employees on an individual base what their needs are and how their job can be changed to increase its intrinsic motivating and developmental value. Additionally, employees might be encouraged to engage in job crafting in order to increase the intrinsic value of their job. Moreover, organizational practices and procedure might be developed that support and facilitate older employees sustainable employment. For instance, organizations can provide older employees with development and mobility opportunities, signaling to older employees that their tasks are important and their efforts are appreciated (Connelly et al., 2011). Moreover, it is important that attitudes, procedures and practices are free from age stereotyping since such stereotyping might serve as a work stressor (Posthuma & Campion, 2009; Rabl, 2010), and can endanger employees health and work engagement. Organizational denial and absence of support for older employees can negatively affect the motivation for older employees to develop and invest

19 2466 K. van Dam et al. in their work situation (Maurer, 2007). However, as Billett et al. (2011) note, this might require a change in the societal views of the value of older workers. Conclusion With the focus on sustainable employment this study builds on the sustainability paradigm that seeks to design economic and social activities that promote sustainable development in social, economic and ecological resources (Docherty et al., 2009; United Nations, 1972). The discussion about sustainable work is still recent (Mohrman & Worley, 2010) and needs further development. This study contributes to this discussion by suggesting that organizations can foster employees sustainable employment through job design and climate interventions. Our findings indicate that stimulating employees through a supportive, rewarding, developmental and challenging work environment might be an effective strategy to retain employees in the workforce such that they are capable and motivated. Organizations are recommended to invest in human resource strategies that actively address the needs and desires of older segments of the workforce. Owing to the aging and dejuvenation of the workforce, organizations cannot afford to dismiss the older workers contribution. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. References Ackerman, P. L. (2000), Domain-specific knowledge as the dark matter of adult intelligence: Gf/Gc, personality and interest correlates, The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 55, Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, Amabile, T. M., Hill, K. G., Hennessey, B. A., & Tighe, E. M. (1994). The work preference inventory: Assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, Arbuckle, J. L. (2010), Amos 18 User s Guide. Retrieved from 18-spss.html Armstrong-Stassen, M., & Schlosser, F. (2008). Benefits of a supportive development climate for older workers. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23, Avery, D. R., McKay, P. F., & Wilson, D. C. (2007). Engaging the aging workforce: The relation between perceived age similarity, satisfaction with co-workers and employment engagement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22,