Xinyuan Zhao PhD a, Junchuan Zhan PhD b & Karthik Namasivayam PhD c a School of Hotel, Restaurant, and Recreation

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1 This article was downloaded by: [Sun Yat-Sen University] On: 16 June 2015, At: 18:06 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: Mortimer House, Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: Factors Affecting Training Success in China Xinyuan Zhao PhD a, Junchuan Zhan PhD b & Karthik Namasivayam PhD c a School of Hotel, Restaurant, and Recreation Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 0011 Mateer Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA b Department of Tourism Management, School of Business, Zhongshan (Sun Yat-Sen) University, Guangzhou, , China c School of Hotel, Restaurant, and Recreation Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 213 Mateer Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA Published online: 23 Sep To cite this article: Xinyuan Zhao PhD, Junchuan Zhan PhD & Karthik Namasivayam PhD (2004) Factors Affecting Training Success in China, Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 3:1, , DOI: /J171v03n01_08 To link to this article: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content ) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and

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3 Factors Affecting Training Success in China Xinyuan Zhao Junchuan Zhan Karthik Namasivayam ABSTRACT. Drawing on existing literature, this paper models and investigates the effects of various organizational and individual level factors on training effectiveness in the context of the Chinese hospitality industry. Factor analytic and multiple regression analyses were employed to analyze the relationships between various factors, their sub-dimensions, and training effectiveness. Two main factors, termed internal factors and external factors, were identified. Internal factors refer to issues pertaining to the design and implementation of the training program and external factors refer to issues pertaining to the training climate of the organization. The results indicate that external factors have a greater impact on training effectiveness. The managerial and theoretical implications of the research are discussed. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: HAWORTH. address: <docdelivery@haworthpress.com> Website: < by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.] Xinyuan Zhao is a Doctoral Student, School of Hotel, Restaurant, and Recreation Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 0011 Mateer Building, University Park, PA ( xxz126@psu.edu). Junchuan Zhan, PhD, is Professor, Department of Tourism Management, School of Business, Zhongshan (Sun Yat-Sen) University, Guangzhou, China Karthik Namasivayam is Assistant Professor, School of Hotel, Restaurant, and Recreation Management, The Pennsylvania State University, 213 Mateer Building, University Park, PA Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, Vol. 3(1) by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Digital Object Identifier: /J171v03n01_08 89

4 90 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM KEYWORDS. Training, training effectiveness, training success, China INTRODUCTION China is developing rapidly on many fronts. The World Tourism Organization reports that China will become one of the most attractive destinations in the world by the year 2020 (He, 2000). The anticipated growth of tourism in China demands the establishment of commensurate infrastructure in the country. One critical component of the travel and tourism industry is the hotel and restaurant sector; it is imperative that this sector is ready to meet the demands that will be placed on it by international travelers. The quality of service has to match the needs of international visitors if more complete advantage is to be taken of the predicted tourist boom. However, the hotel industry currently finds itself faced with the problem of an inadequately trained and qualified labor pool (Lam and Xiao, 2000). As a result, hotels establish training programs to improve the quality of their work force. Zhang, Cai, and Liu (2002) report that about 70 percent of hotel employees industry-wide have received on-job training (p. 92). However, there is a gap between the skills and abilities required and the actual training being currently provided in many Chinese hospitality firms (Zhang et al., 2002; Li, 1995). He (2000), the Minister of Chinese National Tourism Administration, pointed out that training in the Chinese hospitality industry is not adequate to support the anticipated radical changes. Despite hospitality organizations efforts at improving service quality through training, the results have not been satisfactory. Training effectiveness remains a challenge even in nations such as the U. S. A. and the U. K. (Westerman and Donoghue, 1989; Conrade, Woods, and Ninemeier, 1994). Cheng and Ho suggest that training is an expensive investment and this is even more important considering that only 10 percent of total training expenditure could lead to positive transfer of training resulting in increased employee efficiency and effectiveness at the workplace (2001, p. 102). Ensuring that the effectiveness of training programs is enhanced is a critical issue facing hospitality managers in China. Extant theories of training effectiveness focus largely on factors concerning the process of training, such as the design of the training program itself. Less attention is paid in the literature to external or environmental factors such as reward systems and the organizational climate for training. Researchers suggest, however, that both internal and external factors should be accounted for in explaining training effectiveness (Tracey and Tews, 1995). This study was designed to eval-

5 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam 91 uate the influence of these factors on training effectiveness. The objectives of this research include: (1) what role do internal and external factors have in influencing employee s perceptions of training effectiveness and (2) what is the relationship of each subcomponent of internal and external factors to employee s perceptions of training effectiveness. Defining Training REVIEW OF LITERATURE Training has been variously defined in the literatures. The British Department of Employment in its Glossary of Training Terms (1971) defines training as the systematic development of the attitude/knowledge/behavior pattern required by an individual to perform adequately a given task or job. Its weakness lies in the exclusion of groups and teams; it thereby ignores important aspects of the organizational context. Hinrichs (1976), on the other hand, emphasizes the influence of organizational level training factors on organizational effectiveness. This paper also draws on definitions provided by other researchers such as Westerman and Donoghue (1989), Rothwell (1996), Go, Monachello, and Baum (1996), and Mondy and Noe (1996) to develop a definition of training. Dessler suggests that training refers to the methods used to give new or present employees the skills they need to perform their jobs (2003, p. 187). In addition to consulting the published literature, we also surveyed hotel training and human resource managers in China to arrive at a working definition of training in the context of Chinese hospitality firms. Drawing on the resources described above, training is defined as follows in this paper: Training is an organizationally-planned, systematic, and dynamic learning process intended to enhance organizational effectiveness by changing employees knowledge, skills, and attitude. The definition, developed for purposes of this paper, includes and highlights four key concepts: (1) Training is not a single occasion event but a dynamic and on-going process; (2) Training is organizationally planned; (3) Training includes managerial concepts, skills development, and attitude change at both the individual and at the team or group levels; and (4) Training is aimed at improving the business performance and effectiveness of an organization. Factors Influencing Training Effectiveness As the definition provided above suggests, the overall aim of any training program is to enhance business performance. The effectiveness of a training

6 92 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM program may be evaluated using two principal criteria: (1) the existence of measurable changes in individual understanding of various focal issues or learning, and (2) the demonstrated use of such learned knowledge or skills by the trainee at work. This study was cross-sectional in nature and hence the actual application of learned knowledge or skills at work was not directly measured. Instead, we asked questions that measured the level of trainee s acquisition of the training contents and whether trainees intended to use the learning at work. Tracy and Tews suggest that the traditional view of training encompasses the following features: (1) a formal and systematic assessment of training needs; (2) the use of appropriate training methods to deliver content based on needs; and (3) a comprehensive evaluation of the program criteria and strategies (1995, p. 37). According to them, this view of training ignores variables at the individual level (such as attitudes, motivation levels, and abilities) and at the work environment level (such as social networks, job characteristics, and organizational systems). Thus, although training content based on an appropriate needs analysis may be highly relevant, individual motivation, abilities, and attitudes towards training will have an effect on the program s effectiveness. Similarly, if organizational support is not available at the work-spot, trainees may not be in a position to actually apply their learning. Social networks at work are critical in enhancing training effectiveness. Peers and supervisors have to actively support trainees in the acquisition and subsequent application of acquired knowledge at work (Brinkerhoff and Montesino, 1995). Job characteristics and organizational systems are also important factors in training effectiveness. If jobs are tightly scripted, have extensive standard operating procedures, and there is no opportunity to apply one s learning on the job, then training designed to increase employee s creative use of organizational resources is wasted. Similarly, the absence of support for the application of newly acquired knowledge through the judicious use of organizational systems, such as compensation, will be detrimental to the application of learned concepts at work. Compensation programs should recognize and reward the acquisition of new knowledge by employees. Zhang et al. (2002) point to the lack of sufficient organizational structure and consistent standards in Chinese hospitality organizations as one reason for training ineffectiveness. While Tracey and Tews (1995) provide a useful conceptual analysis of training, they did not provide empirical support for their contentions. Further, much extant research on training effectiveness is based on manager s and trainer s perspectives. However, frontline employees are internal customers and training can be considered a service provided by an organization to its employees. It is, therefore, important to assume a frontline employee s perspective in evaluating the relative importance of various factors affecting training

7 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam 93 effectiveness. As Morgan and Casper argue: (1) trainee s responses can provide substantive input for the design and improvement of training efforts; (2) the process of collecting trainee s reactions can serve a customer relations function, building up the customer s sense that the training function is sincerely interested in the service it delivers; and (3) trainee s reaction is a potential predictor of training effectiveness (2000, p. 302). Adopting an employee s perspective highlights the role that factors such as training preparation (TP) and training implementation (TI) (together termed internal factors in this paper) and issues such as training assessment (TA), individual characteristics (IC), and work environment (WE) (together termed external factors) have on employee s evaluations of training effectiveness. Internal Factors The construct internal factors is conceptualized as a two-dimensional construct and refers to the design and implementation of the training program. TP, one sub-dimension of internal factors refers to the extent employees perceive the organization has taken appropriate care in the design of the training program. TI, the other sub-dimension, concerns employee s perceptions of the appropriateness of the actual methods used to deliver training. External Factors External factors is conceptualized as a construct consisting of three sub-dimensions: namely, TA (training assessment), WE (work environment), and IC (individual characteristics). TA refers to trainee s perceptions of whether management has conducted an adequate post-program training assessment and evaluation. WE refers to organizational policies that support and encourage training acquisition and the application of acquired skills and knowledge at the work spot. Finally, IC concerns employee s perceptions of the abilities and attitudes of their peers and colleagues towards learning and training acquisition. The construct external factors is similar to an organizational training climate. Organizational climate refers to the way individuals perceive their work environment (Glisson and James, 2002); here, we specifically investigate training climate (Tracey, Tannenbaum, and Kavanagh, 1995). Finally, training effectiveness (the dependent variable in this study) was defined as the extent to which individuals considered they had acquired new skills and their intent to apply their learning at the job (Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Xiao, 1996).

8 94 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM Research Questions In this paper, we extend the perspectives provided by Tracey and Tews (1995) and other researchers and report the results of an empirical study investigating the influence of various factors on hotel training effectiveness. Since this paper is largely exploratory in character, we did not develop testable hypotheses. Instead, we were guided by our broad research questions namely, what role do internal and external factors have in employee s perceptions of training effectiveness? What is the relationship of each of the subcomponents of internal and external factors to employee s perceptions of training effectiveness? METHODOLOGY The following paragraphs describe the data collection and analytic methods adopted in this study. An explanation of the design of the survey instrument is followed by a description of the study sample. Next, the data analytic methods adopted in this study are presented. Questionnaire Design and Measures A self-administered paper-and-pencil survey questionnaire (Appendix A) was used to collect data. A literature review was conducted to generate a series of items to measure all constructs of interest. Based on the review, a draft of the questionnaire was designed and pilot tested in a hotel. The pilot test was conducted to ensure that the questions were clearly worded and that there were no ambiguous or misleading terms. Twelve current employees of the hotel were recruited to take part in the pilot test. These employees were not included in the main study sample. As a measure of cross-validation and to ensure the questions were tapping the appropriate content domain, two hotel training managers were interviewed and the validity and reliability of each item ascertained. Based on the pilot test, some item wordings were revised. Two improper items (Q11 and Q12) were excluded. The final survey had nineteen items measuring five independent variables. Two items measured the dependent variable. Questions 1-15 (Q1-Q15) were measured on a five-point Likert type scale anchored by 1 = very dissatisfied and 5 = very satisfied. Q16-23 were also measured on a five-point Likert type scale but anchored by 1 = completely disagree and 5 = completely agree. Questions 1-6 (Q1-Q6) assessed employee s views of the extent to which the training program suited the training needs of the depart-

9 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam 95 ment. Q7-Q10 asked employees if they believed the implementation of the program met their needs. Employee s views of whether appropriate post-program evaluations were conducted were assessed by Q While Q16 and Q17 measured individual characteristics, Q18-Q21 measured the extent to which the work environment supported training acquisition and transfer. Finally, Q22 and Q23 measured the effectiveness of the training program. In addition, various socio-demographic data about the respondents were also collected. Sample While conscious of the limitations of convenience sampling, due to various constraints, especially the limited number of hotels agreeable to studies of this nature, this sampling method was adopted in this study. As noted earlier, frontline employees are considered internal customers of a training program. Further, there has been very little research in training effectiveness from the point of view of frontline employees. Therefore, a group of non-managerial employees, drawn mainly from the operating departments of a reputed hotel organization in Guangzhou, were identified as the study sample. The hotel has been in operation for about 20 years and is widely regarded as one of the leading hotels in China. Human resource managers of the hotel assisted in the distribution and collection of questionnaires to various employees. Employee confidentiality was ensured by asking them to return their completed questionnaires in sealed envelopes that were provided to them. Data Analysis Data were collected from the target sample through means of survey. These data were subjected to a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation to determine the factors and their sub-components affecting training effectiveness. The results from the factor analysis supported a multi-dimensional model of factors affecting training effectiveness. Reliability analyses tested the internal consistency of each identified factor and factor sub-dimension. All reliabilities (Cronbach s alpha) were above the recommended 0.70 cutoff value (Nunnally, 1967). Important to note here is that all these factors were measured from the point of view of employees as internal customers of training. Table 1 presents descriptive data of the constructs of interest. Correlations were calculated at both the overall factor level (internal and external factors) and at the sub-dimension level (namely, training preparation, training implementation, training assessment, work environment and individual characteristics). All correlations among the variables were significant and appropriate. It was, therefore, de-

10 96 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM cided to investigate the relative importance of the independent variables in influencing training effectiveness using multiple regression analysis. RESULTS As noted earlier, self-administered questionnaires were distributed to employees of the different operations departments by the hotel s human resource manager. The questionnaires were collected immediately after their completion by the employees. One hundred and fifty five surveys were distributed and 119 usable questionnaires were returned for a response rate of TABLE 1. Correlations A) Correlations (Overall Factor Level) Std. Mean Dev. (1) (2) (3) INTERNAL (1) (0.93) EXTERNAL (2) ** (0.92) EFFECT (3) ** 0.713** (0.79) Notes: (a) Internal: Employee s evaluations of the training process and design. External: Employee s evaluations of external variables affecting training. Effect: Employee s evaluation of training effectiveness. (b) Numbers on the diagonal in brackets are Cronbach s alpha. (c) ** p <.01 (2-tailed). B) Correlations (Sub-Dimension Level) Std. Mean Dev. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) TP (1) (0.91) TI (2) ** (0.87) TA (3) ** 0.645** (0.87) IC (4) ** 0.509** 0.609** (0.80) WE (5) ** 0.562** 0.727** 0.672** (0.86) TE (6) ** 0.550** 0.680** 0.533** 0.686** (0.79) Notes: (a) TP: Training preparation. TI: Training implementation. TA: Training assessment. IC: Individual characteristics. WE: Work environment. TE: Employee s evaluation of training effectiveness. (b) Numbers on the diagonal in brackets are Cronbach s alphas. (c) ** p <.01 (2-tailed).

11 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam percent. It was important to the study to investigate the relationships from the point of view of an employee and not that of the manager or trainer. As the demographic profile demonstrates, participants in the study were mainly from the operational departments, namely front office, housekeeping, and food and beverage departments, ensuring that the view of the frontline employee is represented to a greater extent. A demographic profile of the 119 usable respondents is provided in Table 2. In keeping with the aims of this paper, namely, to explore the differential effects of internal and external factors and their sub-dimensions on training effectiveness, we subjected the data from these questionnaires to multiple regression analyses. We used regression analyses to explore the relationships of interest because it was important to ensure that the results were statistically valid before attempting any interpretation of the data (see for example, Mayer TABLE 2. Demographic Details of the Sample N Percent Male Female Department F/O H/K F&B Other Educational Level Primary school Junior high school Senior high school Professional school College University Tenure 1 year or less Over 1 year to years Over 4 years to years More than 6 years

12 98 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM and Johnson, 2003). Table 3 A provides the results of the regression analysis at the factor level while 3 B provides the results at the sub-dimension level. Regression Results at the Factor Level Our first exploratory research question was What role do internal and external factors have in employees perceptions of training effectiveness? First, the results of the test indicate that the model testing the relationships at the factor level was significant (F = 62.4, p < 0.001) with an r-square of 51.8 percent. Therefore, it was statistically permissible to look more closely at the precise nature of relationships among the variables of interest. As the regression results in- TABLE 3. Results of the Regression Analyses A) Regression at the Factor Level Std. Coeff. (Beta) t Sig. (Constant) INTERNAL EXTERNAL Notes: (a) Dependent Variable: Training Effectiveness. Internal: Employee s evaluations of the training process and design. External: Employee s evaluations of external variables affecting training. B) Regression at the Sub-Dimension Level Std. Coeff. (Beta) t Sig. (Constant) TP TI TA IC WE Notes: (a) Dependent Variable: Training Effectiveness. (b) TP: Training preparation. TI: Training implementation. TA: Training assessment. IC: Individual characteristics. WE: Work environment.

13 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam 99 dicate (Table 3 A), external factors had a significant effect (Beta = 0.606, p < 0.001) on trainee s evaluations of training effectiveness. The results also indicate that internal factors did not have a significant effect on training effectiveness (Beta = 0.144, p > 0.1). These results are discussed more fully below. As stated in the section on research questions, we were also interested in understanding how each factor sub-dimension related to the dependent variable, namely training effectiveness. Therefore, we next, conducted regression analyses at the sub-dimension level. Regression Results at the Sub-Dimension Level Again, the results indicate that the model testing the relationships between the sub-dimensions of the factors and the dependent variable was significant (F = 27.99, p < 0.001) with an r-square of 55.3 percent. The regression results also indicate that, of the five sub-dimensions tested, only two were significantly related to training effectiveness; both are components of external factor (Table 3 B). Training assessment, the first sub-dimension with a significant effect on training effectiveness, refers to the extent to which trainees perceive that the hotel management was interested in assessing the outcomes of training (Beta = 0.347, p < 0.01). The second sub-dimension, namely, work environment refers to trainee s perceptions of organizational and peer support was also significantly related to employee s perceptions of training effectiveness (Beta = 0.377, p < 0.001). Training effectiveness was not related to the other sub-dimensions-training preparation, training implementation, or individual characteristics. The implications and conclusions that may be drawn from these statistically supported results are presented next. DISCUSSION This study highlights the importance of various factors in employee s evaluations of the effectiveness of a training program. Earlier research has convincingly demonstrated that factors associated with the training program and individual level demographic variables have an important role in ensuring training programs are effective (Yamnill and McLean, 2001). A little researched area, namely, employee s perspectives of the influence of various internal and external factors on training effectiveness was explored in this study. Hoteliers in China often are at a loss to explain why, despite large investments in training, the results of such training is not satisfactory (Zhang et al., 2002). Hotel managers normally pay great attention to the design elements of training programs. That is, managers ensure that the content and the delivery method chosen matches the highest standards. However, as the results indicate

14 100 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM there are other issues that play a role in trainee s evaluations of a training program. External factors influenced trainee s perspectives of training effectiveness to a greater degree than internal factors. Internal factors did not have an effect on trainee s evaluations suggesting that employees were less concerned about the design and implementation of the training program. A number of factors may explain this. It may be that trainees consider themselves unable to actually evaluate the design and implementation of the program. They may expect that the persons involved with the design are experts and so do not question their expertise. Questions included to measure training preparation (one sub-dimension of internal factors) were of a strategic nature for example, whether trainees considered the training program to be supportive of the strategic objectives of the department. Employees may not have been in a position to evaluate this. The employees were also asked to evaluate the attitude and expertise of the trainers. Issues of power distance may have inhibited their evaluation in this regard (Hofstede, 1980). Researchers note that the Chinese culture emphasizes harmony in interpersonal relationships; this may be a reason for employee s reluctance to evaluate their trainers (Li, 1995). Overall, external factors had a significant impact on training effectiveness. However, one sub-dimension of external factors, individual characteristics or the extent to which trainees considered their peer group to have appropriate learning attitudes, was not significantly related to training effectiveness. This could be because trainees may be reluctant to provide an evaluation of the group. This component of external factors was similar to evaluating peers. It is often difficult for employees to rate their peers, especially if a collectivist culture prevails (Hofstede, 1980; Li, 1995). It is possible that employees in China have to be first trained to understand the value and then conduct appropriate peer evaluations. The data suggest that trainees paid more attention to the extent to which management supports the training program. Work environment, or the extent to which managers motivated and encouraged employees to acquire learning and to make use of training programs, was significantly related to employee s perceptions of training effectiveness. The work environment also includes issues such as adequate compensation and reward systems that motivate the acquisition and application of learning. All these factors indicate top management support; research has shown that in a number of issues top management, support is critical to ensuring success (Yamnill and McLean, 2001). More support for the importance of top management support is provided when trainees notice rigorous post-implementation evaluation of the training program. They are also more likely to rate the effectiveness of a training program as higher when management conducts an evaluation of trainee s post program learning. Thus, overall, it appears that management attention and

15 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam 101 support is important to trainee s evaluations of a training program and their propensity to adopt and use the learning they acquired in the training program. Managerial Implications Managers should first motivate employees to learn new abilities and skills. Next, to ensure better training effectiveness, managers should support employee efforts to practice such skills at the workplace. For example, organizations should set up reward systems that encourage employees to join training programs and to use knowledge acquired through such programs at work. Organizations have established skill-based compensation systems. Such systems recognize and reward each additional skill or set of skills and abilities that an employee acquires. For example, if an employee learns how to operate the computerized property management system (PMS) and all related front office software programs, he or she is given a salary increment. Similarly, an employee can be rewarded for acquiring language skills. Hospitality managers should also remove psychological and physical barriers and enable employees to acquire and employ knowledge effectively. Systems that provide not only monetary incentive, but also psychological support should be established. For example, organizations often recognize those who have acquired knowledge in training programs with a special designation and a badge of recognition such as the Black Belt in Six Sigma Quality Programs. Managers can celebrate the graduation of trainees with a special recognition ceremony. Such managerial acts serve to support and enhance trainee s psychological acceptance of training programs. It is also important to remove any physical barriers that the employee may encounter in transferring the training to the workplace. For example, if an employee has been trained on the latest PMS, but only an earlier version of the program is actually in use at the front office, the employee may not have the opportunity to employ acquired knowledge. In summary, the supportive behaviors and attitude of management is critical to enhance training effectiveness. Limitations The findings from this research must be applied cautiously. The study has a number of limitations. The sample included in this study was frontline employees. It is important to include managerial and administrative employees in future research. It may be that these employee groups have a different perspective on training effectiveness. A further limitation is that a convenient sampling method was used to collect data and the results of this study are not representative of the whole population. We also note the exploratory nature of this study.

16 102 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM CONCLUSIONS The rapid growth of China s tourism industry and the challenges faced by managers in the implementation of training programs motivated this research. The conclusions of this study are useful for hospitality industry managers and trainers. The results of this study suggest that hospitality managers should pay greater attention to ensuring that highly visible managerial and organizational support is provided to training initiatives to ensure that the training program is effective. It is important that organizations provide psychological support, (in the form of recognition, promotions, and increased recognition of efforts), monetary support (in the form of pay increases, and skill based compensation plans), and physical support (in the form of appropriate tools, space, and other physical factors) to ensure that training programs are effective. Organizations are likely to reap increased benefits from training programs when such programs and the trainees are supported. REFERENCES Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, (41), Brinkerhoff, R. O., & Montesino, M. U. (1995). Partnerships for training transfer: Lessons from a corporate study. Human Resource Development Quarterly, (6), Cheng, E. W. L., & Ho, D. C. K. (2001). A review of transfer of training studies in the past decade. Personnel Review, (30), Conrade, G., Woods, R., & Ninemeier, J. (1994). Training in the U.S. Lodging Industry: Perception and Reality. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 35 (5), Department of Employment. (1971). Glossary of Training Terms. HMSO. Dessler, G. (2003). Human Resource Management. NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. Glisson, C., & James, L. R. (2002). The cross-level effects of culture and climate in human service teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, Go, F. M., Monachello, M. L., & Baum, T. (1996). Human Resource Management in the Hospitality Industry. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. He, G. (2000). Work report for the tourism development in China. Tourism Survey, (1), Hinrich, J. R. (1976). Personnel training. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of Organizational and Industrial Psychology (Chapter 19). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally. Hofstede, Geert. (1980). Cultures Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Lam, T., & Xiao, H. (2000). Challenges and constraints of hospitality and tourism education in China. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, (12),

17 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam 103 Li, L. (1995). Human resource management in Chinese hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, (7), iv-vi. Mayer, K. J., & Johnson, L. (2003). A customer-based assessment of casino atmospherics. UNLV Gaming Research & Review Journal, (7), Mondy, R. W., & Noe, R. M. (1996). Human Resource Management. NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. Morgan, R. B., & Casper, W. J. (2000). Examining the factor structure of participant reactions to training: A multidimensional approach. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11 (3), Nunnally, J. C. (1967). Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rothwell, W. J. (1996). Beyond Training and Development. New York: AMACOM. Tracey, J. B., & Tews, M. J. (1995). Training effectiveness: Accounting for individual characteristics and the work environment. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 36 (6), Tracey, J. B., Tannenbaum, S. I., & Kavanagh, M. J. (1995). Applying trained skills on the job: The importance of the work environment. Journal of Applied Psychology, (80), Westerman, J., & Donoghue, P. (1989). Managing the Human Resource. London: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd. Xiao, J. (1996). The relationship between organizational factors and the transfer of training in the electronics industry in Shenzen, China. Human Resource Development Quarterly, (7), Yamnill, S., & McLean, G. N. (2001). Theories supporting transfer of training. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12 (2), Zhang, L., Cai, L. A., & Liu, W. (2002). On-job training: A critical human resources challenge in China s hotel industry. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, (1), SUBMITTED: June, 2003 REVISED: July, 2003 ACCEPTED: September, 2003 REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY

18 104 JOURNAL OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN HOSPITALITY & TOURISM APPENDIX A Survey Instrument All questions were on a 1-5 Likert type scale. Questions 1-15 were anchored by 1 = very dissatisfied and 5 = very satisfied. Questions were anchored by 1 = completely disagree and 5 = completely agree. Training Preparation (TP) TP6 Q1 Training provided appropriately matched the needs of the department. TP2 Q2 Training provided had appropriate content based on the needs of the department. TP1 Q3 Selection of trainees was proper based on the needs of the department. TP4 Q4 Training goals were adequately established. TP3 Q5 The organization of the training program was well designed. TP5 Q6 Training schedules were acceptable. Training Implementation (TI) TI1 Q7 The design of each course was appropriate. TI4 Q8 Trainers had a positive attitude. TI3 Q9 Training adopted appropriate pedagogical methods. TI2 Q10 Materials used in training were appropriate. EXCLUDED Q11 The training place is good. EXCLUDED Q12 The training budget is sufficient. Training Assessment (TA) TA2 Q13 Rigorous post-training evaluation of the trainees was conducted. TA1 Q14 Rigorous post-training evaluation of the program was conducted. TA3 Q15 Management evaluation of training program success was conducted. Individual Characteristics (IC) IC1 Q16 The employees of our hotel have strong learning abilities. IC2 Q17 The employees of our hotel have a positive attitude toward learning.

19 Zhao, Zhan, and Namasivayam 105 Work Environment (WE) WE4 Q18 WE1 Q19 WE3 Q20 WE2 Q21 Management encourages employees to join training program. Training provided was appropriately matched with training needs of the employees job. Managers motivate employees to use skills obtained during training. Organizational system (such as compensation) motivates employees to use skills obtained during training. Training Effectiveness (TE) TE1 Q22 I acquired new skills and learning from the training program. TE2 Q23 I intended to use the skills / learning I acquired from the training program in my job.