Theoretical framework of Organizational Citizenship Behavior

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1 Tenth International Conference of the International Society for Third Sector Research (ISTR) Fondazione ForTeS - Fondazione Scuola di alta Formazione per il Terzo Settore July 10-13, 2012 Siena, Italy Democratization, Marketization, and the Third Sector Do people in NGOs perform civic behavior? Organizational citizenship behavior in Polish NGOs results of an empirical study Joanna Schmidt Poznan University of Economics, Poland One of the basic functions of the NGO sector in the social economy is a function of the democratic (participatory) management (Nalecz, 2009, p. 14). This management style is often the reason why these are called the civil society. The implementation of this feature is verified by measuring the percentage of members participating in the elections to the authorities of the organization in relation to the total number of members, as well as the degree to which decision-making in the organization includes its stakeholders (e.g. employees, volunteers, beneficiaries, donors).this way of managing and the character of relationships with stakeholders is a consequence of perception of the organization as a community. In these communities, employees and others involved in activity in NGOs are considered more as citizens than as human resources (Handy, 1999). The metaphor of the employee as a citizen can be interpreted in two ways. On the one hand you can look at employees as citizens (in the sense of affiliation) of an organization, which is a mapping of the state (Wardecka, 2008). This analogy is not entirely correct, but you can certainly find in many counterparts of structures and regulations occurring in the country. Translating certain rights and obligations of citizens into the language of an organization can apply for example: promotion opportunities and employee participation in the selection of managers, trade union membership (political rights), right to vocational training, medical care, job security, ensuring the national minimum wage (social rights) and 1

2 rules and regulations concerning the entitlement of the employee, contract provisions relating to their duties (civil rights) (ibid, pp. 219). The other interpretation of this metaphor applies to a specific employee attitude to his or her citizenship. This approach addresses the problem of not only being a citizen of the organization (that is, an employee of the organization), but of the fact that employees take the challenge of being citizens, so their behavior should be civic, they should build common good and the community (Handy, op. cit.). This approach is related to the assumption that the citizenship of the employee (within the meaning of membership) does not mean employee who act civically (within the meaning of a worker who is active, able to self-organization, independent, aware of the organization s needs and seeking to satisfy them, that is engaged and having a sense of responsibility). As mentioned above, in NGOs citizenship can be expressed, among others, through a participatory management style. Some studies support this hypothesis. For example Irish studies indicate that nonprofit managers prefer a consultative and participatory style of management which affects friendly atmosphere in the workplace (Connelly, 2006). These managers are also focused on people, which is probably the cause of high morale in the NGOs and the reason for the manifestation of behavior perceived as citizen (ibid.). On the other hand, in Poland, most do not act on the basis of democratic principles (Gumkowska, Herbst, Radecki, 2008, pp. 112), and the vast majority of decisions are taken without regard to the opinion of employees, beneficiaries or institutional partners. That causes, that these do not achieve the postulate of participatory management, which is crucial for their recognition as civil society. Theoretical framework of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) seems to be interesting and relevant issue because of the purposes and functions of nonprofit in society, but also because of the importance of civic behavior for efficiency and development of all (Organ, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 2006). OCB refers to individual behavior that is performed spontaneously, voluntarily and which is not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system that, still, contributes to organizational effectiveness (Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 1997). Consequences of occurrence of these behaviors, although uncontrolled, are in fact reflected in the results of the organization s activities and affect their development (ibid.). 2

3 From the perspective of NGOs, the concept of OCB highlights a very important issue of the relationship between the organization and staff. OCB stress the role of this relationship, which in the face of socio-economic changes and challenges should be shaped up on the basis of partnership relations, commitment and trust, which are factors increasing the chances of organizational success (ibid.). The concept of OCB appeared for the first time in the seventies (Organ, 1977), though its roots reach much deeper. Currently, usually OCB is defined as a type of pro-social activity presented voluntarily by an individual towards other individuals or organization as a whole. This behavior is: spontaneous (due to the will of the individual) and it is not directly or explicitly included in the formal system of rewards (you cannot reward this behavior, or punish the lack of it), in aggregated form (that is, when these behaviors are presented regularly by many people) it promotes efficient and effective functioning of the organization (Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, op. cit ). One of the basic assumptions of the concept, on which researchers agrees, is that the Organizational Citizenship Behavior construct is not homogeneous and consist of many dimensions including different categories of behavior. Studies on the OCB resulted in the emergence of increasing number of new operationalization of this concept, which show various aspects and forms of these behaviors. An overview presenting the most popular classifications of areas included in the OCB is shown in the figure below (Figure 1). The concept of OCB in organization is perceived as a kind of social system - a form of social organization in which there are certain informal norms and rules of coexistence, specific values or atmosphere. Civic behaviors, also falling into this category, are an example of a system which favors the development of the organization. These behaviors are defined as lubricant for the social machinery of the organization, reducing friction and/or increase its performance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, op. cit., pp. 135). The consequences of the emergence of these behaviors, although uncontrolled, have a significant reflection on the results of activities of the organization and influence its development (ibid.). 3

4 Figure 1. Overview of dimensions distinguished in OCB models Organizational Citizenship Behavior Smith, Organ, Near (1983) Altruism Compliance Organ (1988) Altruism Courtesy Sportsmanship Conscientiousness Civic virtue) Williams and Anderson (1991) OCB-I (Individual) OCB-O (Organizational) Van Dyne, Graham, Dienesch (1994) Loyalty Obedience Advocacy participation Functional participation Social participation Moorman i Blakely (1995) Integrations of Organ s and Van Dyne s model Interpersonal helping (altruism behaviors) Individual initiative (civic virtue and advocacy behaviors) Personal industry (conscientiousness and functional participation behaviors) Loyal boasters (loyalty behaviors) Van Dyne, (1995) Van Dyne and LePine (1998) Helping Voice Possakoff et. al. (1993, 2000); LePine et. al. (2002) Helping behavior Organizational compliance Sportsmanship Civic virtue Organizational loyalty Self-development Individual initiative 4 Source: own description based on: C.A. Smith, D.W. Organ, J.P. Near, (1983); P. M. Podsakoff, S. B. MacKenzie, J. B. Paine, D. G. Bachrach (2000); J.A. LePine, A. Erez, D.E. Johnson (2002); D. W. Organ, P. M. Podsakoff, S. B. MacKenzie (op. cit.) ; M. Acquaah (2004); Organ (1988); Moorman, Blakely, Niehoff, (1998)

5 There are several possible reasons to explain the impact of various aspects of OCB on the efficiency and development of or teams. Among these factors the following are mentioned: OCB may increase the productivity of employees and managers (for example: by promoting "best practices", helping other workers, sharing knowledge on how to perform tasks more efficiently, sharing suggestions, providing feedback to managers) (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, Fetter, 1993; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 1994); OCB may improve performance by releasing resources for more productive purposes for example a manager doesn t have to spend most of the time for completing only supporting tasks (Organ, 1988) like control, conflict resolution, listening to complaints. Instead, a manager can improve coordination of activities (Smith, Organ, Near, op. cit) and engage in planning; OCB is also a factor that can improve the performance of the organization by emphasizing the organization's ability to attract and retain the best employees (Organ, 1988, George, Bettenhausen, 1990) - for example, greater cohesion, group morale and a sense of belonging contribute to performance improvement and the willingness to stay with the team. What is more the willingness to tolerate unavoidable inconveniences without complaining increases the sense of loyalty and attachment to the organization which results in lower staff turnover; OCB contribute to the reduction of differences in the task level performance and achieved results (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 1997) (execution of tasks of absent persons, helping those who are overloaded allows to maintain a constant level of performance and reduces the differences in the group, which badly affects the final result of work) OCB affects the provision of increased ability to adapt to a changing environment (ibid.) (e.g., employees are ready to learn new skills or undertake additional responsibilities if needed; employees sharing the information they obtained, suggesting some solutions that make adaptation to the changes easier and faster). Conducted research also provides support for the hypothesis that OCB is related to the development of the organization. On average (ibid.) the extent to which OCB explains the efficiency of the organization is at a level of 19% of the variance for the quantity of execution, more than 18% for quality, about 25% for the financial performance indicators, and 38% for the indicators of customer service. 5

6 Taking into account the above characteristics of OCB is a concept that describes well civic behaviors and gives them theoretical foundation. What is more, it seems that considering the work environment of the NGO (based on voluntary involvement of volunteers, informal atmosphere, recognition of the mission value), OCB may be the concept that fits well with its work style and organizational culture, while influencing the growth of its efficiency and performance standards. Shaping OCB in NGOs Assuming that OCB can affect the functioning of the organization, the question arises whether and how the organization might affect employees, to encourage them to present behaviors beneficial to the organization. Especially that citizenship behavior relates to spontaneous, voluntary and not regulated activity. Ability to influence the organization in this area is limited and can have only an indirect nature, i.e., an organization can control the factors that are associated with the emergence of civic behavior in it. At the same time we should be aware that in addition to factors related to the work environment, there are also important personal qualities that are beyond the control of the organization (Organ, 1988, pp ). Environmental factors are a group of factors including several categories of variables related to the environment and working conditions in the organization - they are therefore the factors that are directly shaped by the organization. Environmental factors can be modified depending on the intentions and objectives of management. Promoting civil behavior in the organization can thus take place through the formation of these very specific factors. Environmental factors include the following categories (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 1997; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, Bachrach, op. cit.): the individual relationship with the work environment; features of organization; task features and leader s behavior. The first group of variables describes the relation of workers to an organization. Essential elements from this point of view, that consist of the nature of these relationships are: job satisfaction (Organ, Ryan, 1995; Turnipseed, Murkison, 2000, Organ 1988, Schanke, 1992), satisfaction of working with colleagues (Bateman, Organ, 1983), engagement and a sense of commitment to the organization (Moorman, Niehoff, Organ, 1993; Turnipseed, Murkison, op. cit.). The level of staff satisfaction of NGOs is usually high (Benz, 2005; Bacchiega, Borzaga, 6

7 2002), and therefore, this element seems to predispose to OCB appearance in nonprofit. It is similarly with the involvement (Liao-Troth, 2005). Each of these elements is a factor that can be shaped - if necessary, using appropriate tools to favor the occurrence of OCB. An example in case of increasing job satisfaction can be - employees' needs study, careful training selection, multilateral information flow and involving employees in participation in decision-making. In turn, the level of satisfaction with the cooperation with colleagues can be influenced by introduction of specific standards for resolving conflicts, careful selection of personnel to teams, looking after quality of communication and freedom of expression. Involvement and commitment to the organization can be increased through forming clear rules, openness, presenting the compliance of procedures, rules and practical operation of the organization or activities presented by the board and managers. The features of the organization that are important for OCB development include: group cohesion (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Bommer, 1996), a sense of support of the organization and safety in the workplace (Gyekye, Salminen, 2005), satisfaction with the salary (Bateman, Organ, op. cit, Turnipseed, Murkison, op. cit.). The analysis of the problem indicates (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, Bachrach, op. cit.), that the variables which characterize the organization are one of the major factors groups responsible for the occurrence and development of civil behavior. This group also includes the largest percentage of explained variation (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 1997). Group cohesion increases by leading a conscious process of teambuilding, appropriate selection of team members, shaping a sense of common responsibility for team performance and a certain independence of the group. A sense of support of the organization and safety in the workplace arises, among others, from how the organization responds to the emerging mistakes, if there is a support system for staff or personnel development system. Numerous studies (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, Fetter, 1990; Konovsky, Pugh, 1994; Deluga, 1995) also indicate the existence of a strong relationship between trust to colleagues (and superiors) and civic behavior. Trust between superiors and subordinates and colleagues encourage the development of OCB. If other employees are considered to be reliable, it allows other forms of relationships to develop. This forms are for example: a sense of fair treatment by management (Dessler, 1999, for: Acquaah, op. cit), or sense of safety (Gyekye, Salminen, op. cit.), which result in loyalty, compliance with organizational regulations, higher job satisfaction, increased commitment and greater support of the board policy and as a result enhance the development of OCB. Studies show that an important variable influencing the development of OCB is also the satisfaction of the amount of remuneration (Turnipseed, Murkison, op. cit.) M. Schnake, 7

8 D. Cochran, M. P. Dumler (1995) found that pay equity affects the development of OCB more than job equity. However, the results are not clear, as in previous studies conducted by Organ and Bateman (op. cit.) the correlation between satisfaction with the pay and OCB was observed only in the second period of longitudinal study, suggesting the existence of additional factors enabling the emergence of this relationship. On the other hand, Morrison's study (1994) indicated no connection between these variables. Satisfaction with the amount of remuneration is the result of a subjective sense that there is a correct relationship between quality and quantity of work and remuneration. This is connected also with elements such as paying salary on time or organization's honesty and openness in conducting financial issues. It seems that for NGOs this issue may be the cause of blocking the occurrence of OCB. In Poland it is also connected with generally moderate satisfaction with the salary (cf. Gumkowska, Herbst, Rodecki, op. cit.), but also with the practices related to remuneration like frequent delays in payment of debts (caused by delays of bank transfer tranches from funders, untimely billing statements or the necessity to introduce the amendments, which causes blockage of further cash inflows) as well as providing the necessary capital contributions for conducted projects by deducting employees' salaries. The third group of environmental factors includes task features. In these area elements that comprise the expectation of high performance are considered most important (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, Fetter, op. cit.). Components of high performance expectations include: feedback about the job, routine tasks, task clarity (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Bommer, op. cit.). The presence and quality of feedback significantly affects the occurrence of OCB. It is important to work out and maintain procedures to communicate with employees, enabling them opinion expression on matters important to them. As in the nonprofit participation in decision making may be a compensation of lower wages, this practice seems to be particularly useful. Also, leader behavior may significantly affect expression of the OCB in the organization. From this point of view important issues are: the character of leadership, support provided by the leader and a sense of fairness. Leadership behaviors, conducive to the emergence of citizenship among employees, is characterized by certain aspects of transactional leadership (where relationships are considered from the perspective of transactions taking place between leader and employee), and supportive leadership (Acquaah, op. cit.) Leadership promoting the development of OCB should be based on vision articulation, supporting the group goals, indicating the high expectations and intellectual stimulation (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Bommer, op. cit., Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, 8

9 Fetter, op. cit.). Employees whose managers exhibit such behaviors are more motivated to engage in civic behavior. OCB also appear more often in situations where leaders are supportive, loyal to employees and express respect. Considering the importance of civic behavior and analyzing the possibilities to control the process of their implementation to an organization, we should also pay attention to some negative consequences that may occur under certain conditions. The basic condition of civic behavior appearance and operation is voluntary engagement. Direct pressure to perform these behaviors leads to the opposite effect - namely, to transform civic behavior into mandatory behaviors called Compulsory Citizenship Behavior (Vigoda-Gadot, 2006), and civic in name only. With this type of behavior we deal in a situation of strong pressure to (involuntarily) engage in additional activities, which are not required by the duties in the workplace. The emergence of a sense of constraint in this area promotes sense of injustice, a sense of being used, reduces commitment and trust. Method and measurement The paper s main question is: are Polish NGOs civic (in the sense presented by the OCB construct)? More specifically the study investigates: 1. the features of staff (age, gender, form of employment or cooperation: being a member, volunteer or employee, work motives, the level of job satisfaction, the level and character of the competences) 2. the features of NGOs development types (stable, expansive, amateur ) which are correlated to certain level, presence or absence of aggregated OCB and its dimensions. In the study six dimensions of OCB were distinguished (Podsakoff et al., 2000, LePine et al., 2002, modified due to the necessity of adaptation to Polish NGOs conditions). The dimensions were as follows: helping behaviors, organizational loyalty, organizational compliance, individual initiative, civic virtue and self-development. This model, in comparison with other, stands out with the holistic approach, based on the concept of OCB construct author - D. Organ (1988, 2005). In addition, it is thoroughly documented with a number of empirical studies. A detailed description of each dimension is presented in a table below (Table 1). 9

10 Table 1. OCB dimensions according to Podsakoff et.al. (2000) and LePine et. al. (2002) - modified Dimensions Helping behavior Organizational compliance Civic virtue Characteristics Offering voluntary help to others, who have work-related problems (e.g., introducing new employees, supporting people who are overworked, taking care of relationships and mitigating conflicts, encouraging and strengthening co-workers and their achievements). Preventing the emergence of problems with work voluntarily. Accepting, maintaining and observance of rules, regulations and procedures of the organization, even without control and supervision (such as punctuality, not wasting time, not extending breaks) (Graham, 1991; Smith, Organ, Near, 1983). Active participation in matters concerning organization (e.g., tracking of issues related to the organization, participating in voluntary meetings, engaging in policy discussions related to the organization, raising objections relating to the running of the organization, reporting to the additional tasks) (Organ, 1988; Graham, 1991; Van Dyne et. al., 1994). Organizational loyalty Promoting the image of the organization outdoors, protecting it and defending against attacks from the external environment, maintaining the commitment even during difficulties (Podsakoff, et al., 2000). The will to submit individual interest for the benefit of the organization, to promote and defend the organization (Bolino, Turnley. Bloodgood, 2003; Graham, 1991). Self-development Individual initiative Expressing willingness to engage in voluntary behavior that refines the knowledge, skills and abilities of the employee. Searching and using opportunity to participate in training courses, keeping abreast with the latest achievements in the field, or even learning new skills to expand the scope of contribution to the organization (George, Brief, 1992). Getting involved in voluntary, creative and innovative activities that go beyond the responsibilities associated with working at a given position, taken in order to improve the performance of tasks and organizational performance (e.g., conscientiousness, the manifestation of sustained enthusiasm and effort to achieve the target, undertaking voluntarily additional duties, encouraging other employees to undertake such activities) (Organ, 1988; Podsakoff et. al., 2000). Source: own study based on descriptions of the following classifications: LePine, Erez, Johnson, 2002; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, Bachrach, 2000 and Organ, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, op. cit.; Acquaah, In the study a method of diagnostic survey was used, in the quantitative and, additionally, qualitative form. The study was carried in selected in accordance with quota 10

11 sampling 1, trying to reach every person engaged in the work in organization (employees, members, volunteers), because examination of the human resources required reaching the greatest number of individuals involved in the organization, so that the obtained information reflect the actual situation of the organization as much as possible. After calculating the individual results for all persons, they were aggregated at the level of organization and at this level further analysis were carried out. Questionnaires were sent to the organization, and part of them were personally visited, what was an opportunity both to collect questionnaires and to deepen the knowledge of the organization by conducting interviews with its leaders and observing their daily work. In total, surveys were conducted in 29, in which 189 people completed the questionnaire (4 up to 12 in every organization). Moreover individual in-depth interviews were conducted with eight people - members of the board of. The questionnaire consists of 3 parts metrics of personal data, individual features questions and OCB statements. The vast majority of OCB measuring tools presented in the literature (cf. Organ, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, op. cit.) is based on the principle that tested person is asked not to assess his or hers own behavior, but to assess the behavior of the closest coworker. The study follows this idea to avoid the problems of the Rosenberg s effect (cf. Brzezinski, 2004, pp ), which causes that the assessment of own behavior may be inadequate, biased and falsified, because the test questions are personal and sensitive. Tested person in such situations, attempts to introduce themselves in a positive light, want to please the researcher, interpret the tool and act in accordance with the assumed expectations. It should also be noted that a request for an opinion about a respondent s collaborator, not a superior, is a results of the assumption that they have more knowledge about each other s everyday behaviors and have more opportunities to observe them. For the analysis of the results appropriate statistical methods were used. These were the methods of statistical description (the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, median, dispersion, skewness, kurtosis) and method of correlation analysis (chi-square (for nominal 1 The presented methodology and results are part of a greater research project conducted by the author (Research work financed from the resources for science of Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education in as a research project) concerning development of NGOs and role of human resources in this process. In the whole study sample were selected in several ways, depending on the stage. The pilot study used purposeful selection (non-random), which was dictated by the intention of auditing the accuracy of the tool. The main research of development was conducted on a random, representative sample of Polish (using unrestricted simple random in the variant without replacement). A total of 3,000 were selected randomly. After the dispatch of questionnaires (via mail and ) and prompted 414 questionnaires filled in correctly were obtained. Subsequently, on the basis of the results, three different types of development were identified (distinguished them on the basis of cluster analysis). Those 414 were baseline population for further (human resources and OCB) research. 11

12 scale variables) with significance level p = 0.05, Cramer's V as a factor supporting the chisquare for evaluation of strength of the relationship, Goodman-Kruskal s λ, Spearman's Rho at significance level p = 0.05). Results and discussion OCB in Polish NGOs basic characteristics The following table (Table 2) shows the statistics calculated basing on the results of all examined persons. They indicate that civic behavior in all distinguished dimensions is similar. Table 2. OCB results for all tested persons - descriptive statistics n (f) Mean Median Min. Max. Standard Skewness Kurtosis deviation Helping behavior 189 0,45 0, ,2820 0,19-0,860 Organizational compliance 189 0,5 0,50 0 0,88 0,2394-0,02-0,860 Civic virtue 189 0,51 0, ,3294 0,08-1,206 Organizational loyalty 189 0,53 0, ,2714 0,02-1,002 Self-development 189 0,44 0, ,3726 0,21-1,393 Individual initiative 189 0,45 0, ,3086 0,25-1,084 Overall OCB 189 0,48 0, ,4 3,56 2,38 15,81 Source: own research Attention should be paid even for small differences in the results, since all results lies within the range between 0 and 1 (where 0 means not presenting the type of behavior at all, and 1 - always presenting it, that is, for each of the indicators examined). Mean and median scores for all dimensions are between 0.4 and 0.6. This indicates that the average examined person exhibits these behaviors to a moderate extent (not rare and not often). The highest mean and median can be observed in the case of organizational loyalty, which indicates their high commitment to the organization. A small standard deviation indicates relatively homogeneous responses in this regard. Higher loyalty may be a result of attitude towards human resources in the organization and the organization of work. We should also be aware that a large part of the crew are often members of associations or foundations, councils or also members of other bodies, so they are also formally involved with the organization and responsible for it. Taking into account the mean, self-development is a dimension of the lowest value. Self-care for increasing professional competence is a difficult task, especially in the face of 12

13 often unregulated range of tasks and the lack of a clearly defined career path. In this context, presenting behaviors broadening the knowledge and skills, and ultimately helping to improve the quality of the tasks, requires extra effort from team members, and therefore expression of these may be smaller. If, in turn, we look at the median, slightly less frequently (though not rare) initiative, civic virtue and helping others are shown. All of these dimensions requires a constant, regular activity in the organization. Presence is the determinant of engagement; it gives the opportunity to demonstrate initiative, to share ideas and knowledge, to help others in fulfilling their duties. As shown by study (cf. Gumkowska, Herbst, Radecki, op. cit.), despite numerous membership, only a small proportion of members regularly engages in the work of the organization, and as they constitute the majority of teams and thus the majority of respondents, their responses can affect the whole of the results. Descriptive statistics were compiled also in terms of perspective including the proper calculation of the entire organization (that is taking into account results of all respondents from one organization). The results obtained (see Table 3.) confirmed and highlighted the trends observed during the analysis of the individual responses. Table 3. OCB results for all - descriptive statistics n (f) Mean Median Min. Max. Standard Skewness Kurtosis deviation Helping behavior 29 4,33 4,52 1,0 9,0 1,99-0,10-0,15 Organizational compliance 29 4,21 4,36 1,3 7,6 1,36-0,08 0,92 Civic virtue 29 2,44 2,66 0,5 4,6 1,02-0,11-0,48 Organizational loyalty 29 4,77 4,75 2,0 8,0 1,67 0,17-0,90 Self-development 29 1,73 1,72 0,4 4,0 0,85 0,40 0,29 Individual initiative 29 4,25 4,82 1,0 6,8 1,75-0,53-0,73 Overall OCB 29 21,76 23,96 8,0 36,33 7,64-0,48-0,57 Source: own research For the perspective two dimensions may be clearly distinguished, in which behavior is expressed much less likely. These are self-development and civic virtue. Low scores in these categories indicate the primary, mentioned above, problems present in the organization - lack of human resources policy, particularly taking into account the professional development of human resources and little involvement of members who are often members only formally. 13

14 The features of staff and OCB When preparing the study it was assumed that: age, gender, form of employment or cooperation (being a member, volunteer or, employee), work motives, the level of job satisfaction, the level and character of the competences correlate with a certain OCB level. First, it was assumed that the age of employees, members and volunteers can significantly differentiate their behavior in the organization, due to the occurrence of certain stages and phases of career development (Levinson, et al., 1978 for: Organ, op. cit.). Behavior of younger staff, looking for its place and developing, are, in a greater extent, a result of the impact of reciprocity norms (Kanungo, Conger, 1993; for: Wagner, Rush, 2000). What is more, they expect a fair trading relationship more intensively (Organ, 1988, 1990). The older staff, looking for stability, is more focused on the social norm of benevolence (ibid.). One can therefore assume that people at different ages, and also in various stages of career development, will differ in the expression of civic behavior - especially in relation to particular dimensions (e.g., helping behavior, self-development, individual initiative). Conducted analysis, however, indicated that one cannot confirm this hypothesis and it must be stated that the level of OCB is not dependent on age (chi2 = 46.58, df = 54, p = 0.75). Factor that could be important in this case is probably especially work environment, which is usually characterized by friendly, informal atmosphere, or short career path. This may diminish the perceived differences in the positions that are most often considered as related with age of workers. There were also no differences observed in the OCB level due to the form of cooperation of the respondents (i.e. employee, member, volunteer), so this variable is not disrupting the above result. Also gender turned out to be an irrelevant factor for the OCB level (chi2 = 16.79, df = 18, p = 0.53). The results of other authors are ambiguous in this regard. Findings arising from that research lead to the conclusion that (due to the social stereotype) women are expected to be more civic than men (Lovell, et. al., 1999 for: Farrell, Finkelstein, 2007). What is more this perception leads to situations where supervisors attach to women s civic behaviors less attention. In the same time men exhibit more OCB only in respect of civic virtue (Organ, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, 2006). According to this, it seems that, basing on gender, the difference in behavior is rather a result of social perception of them, then their real existence. It also seems that people in the NGOs are not judged on the basis of gender stereotypes to the extent to which it is in other. Another tested feature was a form of employment or cooperation with the organization. Various forms of employed were distinguished on this basis (like full-time job, 14

15 part time job, contract job, specific-task contract) and various forms of voluntary cooperation (like membership and volunteering). However, any of these forms of employment or cooperation, did not differentiate the respondents significantly (chi2 = 30.52, df = 36, p = 0.726). Results of other studies on this issue are various. Most frequently, it has been noted, that people working full time are more involved and attached to the organization, which resulted in higher level of OCB. It should be noted that many authors suggest that this difference usually may be reduced or excluded by creating good conditions for cooperation. This means that even if the work and engagement are not permanent and regular, you can achieve a similar OCB level as with person employed full-time, by establishing appropriate relationships and building friendly working environment. The factors positively influencing the level of OCB, which compensate the impact of different forms of employment include: respect towards employee (Van Dyne, Ang, 1998), employee engagement, when the objective is to gain experience and skills (as opposed to financial motivation) (Moorman, Harland, 2002), signing psychological contract (Robinson, Rousseau, 1994), supporting employee and delegating more responsibility to him or her (Coyle-Shapiro, Morrow, Kessler, 2006). It seems that at least some of these factors (e.g., non-financial incentives, greater responsibility - see e.g. studies of E. Bogacz-Wojtanowska 2005 and 2009) occurs in non-governmental, so this is probably the reason of absence of differences between the workers employed on the basis of different forms of employment, as well as between employees, members and volunteers. The level of OCB also did not differ among people declaring different motives of cooperation with an NGO. Executed statistical analysis (Spearman's Rho = , p = 0.78) also indicated that there was no correlation between the level of job satisfaction and the level of OCB. One also cannot confirm the hypothesis, indicating that the high competence of employees, members and volunteers correlate with high OCB level. It appeared that the level of respondents education (Spearman's Rho = , p = 0.88), the type of that education (chi2 = 46.58, df = 81, p = 0.99), length of work in the organization (Spearman's Rho = -0.07, p = 0.81), professional experience in the NGO sector (Spearman s Rho = 0.21, p = 0.47), nor the skill level (Spearman's Rho = -0, 16, p = 0.59) are irrelevant for OCB level. These results seem worthless only on the surface. In fact, further analysis show that the lack of correlation brings important information. Primarily, it suggests that the level of OCB among teams of NGOs is independent from personal factors. This information appears to be important both from a cognitive and a practical point of view. It indicates that in the 15

16 light of research results, there is no one that would be more or less susceptible to the presentation of OCB. Any group in this respect cannot be considered as "fated to fail" nor a "fated to success" and perfect collaboration. Therefore, next step would be to carry out studies on the relationship of environmental factors and the level of OCB. This, in turn, gives greater possibility for managers to influence the organization. Since OCB level is not related to personal factors, and is associated with environmental factors, civic behavior can be strongly controlled. Furthermore, these results indicate a specific shape of relations in NGOs that seem to bulldoze the impact of the differences that exist among staff in of other sectors. OCB and type of organizational development The next step taken in the study was examination of the relationship between the level of OCB and the organization s development. Examination of the development (taking into account the level and the dynamics of this process), was a part of previous part of research. The main results of that study showed that there are three basic types of Polish development styles (as a result of cluster analysis). Taking into account level and dynamics of development a matrix of these forms was created (table 4). Organizations with high level and large dynamics of development were called expansive. There are only about 13% of these. Expansive are developed and made a lot of changes in the way they perform in the past two years. What is more, they are still developing, building the organization with a lot of energy. The second type includes stable. They are the most developed ones, especially in the area of potential and effects of activity. In the same time there is no willingness to continue the process of development in these. They are steady and constant; they have a strong position, and behave in a routine way. There were 30% of stable in the sample. The last, most often type, included amateur. More than half of organization is characterized by low level of development in every analyzed area, and they are also not taking any steps to change it (or those steps are unsuccessful), which means that there is also low dynamics of development observed. These are very interesting group, because their leaders seem not to be interested in developing organization. 16

17 Table 4. Level and dynamics of development in clusters Dynamics of development Level of development Developed (medium and high level of development) Undeveloped (low development level) Source: own research Constant (low development dynamics) Cluster three STABLE ORGANIZATIONS Cluster two AMATEUR ORGANIZATIONS Dynamic (high development dynamics) Cluster one EXPANSIVE ORGANIZATIONS In the presented study it was assumed that the higher levels of OCB, the higher level and more dynamic development of the organization. However, statistical analysis showed no differences between the type of due to general level of OCB (chi2 = 22.02, df = 18, p = 0.23). But, in addition to the overall OCB outcome, also each dimension s score was known, enabling deepen analysis and statistics performance, examining the relationship between these dimensions and the type of development. Six featured dimensions were examined, four of which proved to differentiate with different types of development. These included: helping others, organizational compliance, civic virtue and organizational loyalty. Detailed data is presented in the following table (tab5.). Table 5. Statistical relations between dimensions of OCB and the type of development chi 2 df p level Cramer's V Goodman- Kruskal s λ Helping behavior 32,178 df=20 p=0,041 0,31 0,16 Organizational compliance 29,401 df=18 p=0,043 0,30 0,10 Civic virtue 20,41 df=10 p=0,025 0,25 0,14 Organizational loyalty 10,00 df=2 p=0,006 0,70 0,10 Self-development 11,953 df=8 p=0, Individual initiative 34,675 df=30 p=0, Overall OCB 22,027 df=18 p=0, Source: own research In this context, it may be noted that, despite the fact that general OCB is not associated with the type of development, these relationships exist and are strong for individual dimensions. 17

18 Helping behavior In the case of amateur and stable organization the higher the level of this dimension in the organization, the less response was observed. This suggests that in these kinds of people who help their colleagues willingly and quite often are in the minority. At the same time it should be noted that this process proceeds more rapidly in amateur and the level of helping behavior dimension is more balanced within stable. In "expansive" majority of the respondents show the medium level of willingness to help others, which is (on average) higher than in other types of. It is also worth noting, that among individuals involved in activity of expansive there is no one who does not show helping behavior at all, but 20% of them present maximum level of supportive behavior. It seems that the tendency for the expression of this type of behavior promotes more dynamic development of the organization. Graph 1. Helping others and the type of organization development - the distribution of responses 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% Expansive Amateur Stable 5% 0% 0<0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Source: own research Organizational compliance The second dimension of OCB, which turned out to differentiate the having a different type of organizational development is compliance. When it comes to respecting organizational rules, it seems that the respondents engaged in activities in all types of, usually follows them to a moderate extent. These findings also indicate that respondents from the "stable" are more varied in this area, while respondents 18

19 from other types of behave more homogeneously. Perhaps teams of "stable", whose members usually work longer in the organization, feels more freely in it and hence respect the existing rules less. In addition, these, as having the longest duration, developed probably many different procedures and rules which - considering freedom that characterizes smaller non-governmental - can be difficult to accept for the crew. It should also be noted that similarly, in the case of this dimension, larger percentage of people from "expansive" were presenting behaviors consistent with the standards at the highest level. According to the observations it can be concluded that high level of development and stability favors more diverse behavior in dimension of compliance. Graph 2. Organizational compliance and the type of organization development - the distribution of responses 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 0< 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 Expansive Amateur Stable Source: own research Civic virtue Another important dimension differentiating the is civic virtue. We can observe significant differences between different types of organizational development, in this area. Low to moderate level of civic virtue is manifested by individuals involved in activity in "amateur" and "stable". In stable, we can observe that more people present engaging behavior, however the greater involvement, the fewer people who manifest it. Conversely, in the case of "expansive" organization we can see the greater involvement (higher score), the more people presenting such behavior. It seems that stability 19

20 that "stable" have achieved discourages people (or suggest that there is no need) to involve in the organization s affairs. Please note, that these are the most experienced and equipped with many management tools, procedures, regulations, etc., that show the desired behavior. In such a system it is not required to involve much energy in functioning in the organization. "Expansive" in turn, as those that showed the highest dynamics of changes are the youngest and characterized by the greatest effort of still enthusiastic team. It seems that the civic virtue is thus a function of the dynamics rather than the level of organization s development. Graph 3. Civic virtue and the type of organization development - the distribution of responses 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 0< 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Expansive Amateur Stable Source: own research Organizational loyalty The last dimension associated with the development of the organization was, as mentioned above, organizational loyalty, which includes promoting and defending the image of the organization. 20

21 Graph 4. Organizational loyalty and the type of organization development - the distribution of responses 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 0<0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 Source: own research Expansive Amateur Stable Also in this case, respondents from "expansive" turned out to be characterized by the highest level of behavior in this regard. The distribution of answers given by respondents from the amateur and stable is almost identical, but "amateur" are characterized by higher rates in the loyalty of its members, employees and volunteers. It seems that loyalty towards organization, which contains the element of trust, is an essential factor that enables changes introduction into organization, consequence of which is development. It turns out that this feature characterizes usually with young, dynamic crew. That may mean that, over time, loyalty (together with civic virtue and willingness to help others) decreases. It seems that the simultaneous occurrence or disappearance of these phenomena, if we consider a function of time, can be related to burnout and tiredness, especially if it is not associated with the occurrence of the expected results. Conclusion The main findings show that overall OCB level in Polish NGOs is medium. OCB level does not depend on any individual features that were investigated. It seems that environmental features may be more important in this regard; however this issue needs more study. As for development types, each of them is described by a characteristic OCB profile, presented by teams of these. These profiles, taking into account the level of 21

22 particular dimensions (high, low or medium), are presented in the following table (Table 6). As shown in the table, and which also results from previous analysis, the study suggests that when it comes to the level of OCB, "amateur" and "stable" are more similar to each other, while "expansive" clearly stands out. This indicates that the development dynamics of organization seems to be more important for the character of relations between people and seems to stimulate the expression of pro-social and proorganizational behavior - regardless of whether the level of organization s development is high or low. Table. 6. The level of OCB dimensions in different types of organization development Expansive Amateur Stable organization Helping behavior Medium Low Medium Organizational compliance Medium Medium Medium Civic virtue High Low Low Organizational loyalty High Medium Medium Self-development Low Low Low Individual initiative Medium Medium Medium Source: own research Results show many differences between types and features of, especially if we analyze OCB dimensions separately. Focusing on key outcomes it can be said that staff in the most expansive and rapidly growing is characterized by very high engagement, civic virtue, loyalty and willingness to help other. In big, stable we can observe only medium level of civic virtue, low level of loyalty and low compliance. While in small, amateur, young people are most satisfied with the job, but also they present lack of willingness to help others or to develop. 22

23 References Acquaah, M., (2004) Human factor theory, organizational citizenship behaviors and human resources management practices: an integration of theoretical constructs and suggestions for measuring the human factor. Review of Human Factor Studies, pp Bacchiega, A., Borzaga, C., (2002) The Economics of the Third Sector: Towards a More Comprehensive Approach, (conference paper, European Network Meeting, Trento, Italy). Bateman, T. S., Organ, D. W., (1983) Job satisfaction and the good soldier: The relationship between affect and employee "citizenship", Academy of Management Journal, no. 26, pp Benz, M., (2005), Not for the Profit, but for the Satisfaction? Evidence on Worker Well- Being in Non-Profit Firms, KYKLOS, Vol. 58 No. 2, pp Bogacz-Wojtanowska, E. (2005), Wzory zatrudnienia w organizacjach pozarządowych [Patterns of employment in NGOs], Wydawnictwo Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa. Bogacz-Wojtanowska, E. (2009), Zarządzanie kadrami w organizacjach pozarządowych [Human Resources Management in NGOs], In: E. Bogacz-Wojtanowska, M. Rymsza (ed.): Nie tylko społecznie. Zatrudnienie i wolontariat w organizacjach pozarządowych [Not only socially. Employment and volunteering in NGOs], Wydawnictwo Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa, pp Brzezinski, J. (2004), Metodologia badań psychologicznych [Methodology of psychological research], Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa. Connelly, P., (2006) Management Style in the Non-Profit Sector in Ireland, The Irish Journal of Management, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp Coyle-Shapiro, J., Morrow, P., Kessler, I., (2006) Serving two : exploring the employment relationship of contracted employees. Human Resource Management, vol. 45, no. 4, pp Deluga, R. J. (1995), The relationship between attributional charismatic leadership and organizational citizenship behavior, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, pp