Washington Oilseed Cropping Systems Project Annual Progress Report

Transcription

1 Washington Oilseed Cropping Systems Project Part of the Washington State Biofuels Initiative 2013 Annual Progress Report Edited by K.E. Sowers and W.L. Pan

2 Table of Contents Project Overview... 3 Project Highlights... 8 Research Reports Regions 1 and Rotational Influence of Biofuel and Other Crops on Winter Wheat Development of Camelina Lines Resistant to Group 2 Herbicides Oilseed Crop Fertility Assessment of Seeding Approaches for Effective Winter and Spring Canola Establishment..26 Diseases and Pathogens of Canola and Camelina Region Oilseed Production and Outreach Stand Establishment of Winter Canola in the Low to Intermediate Rainfall Zones of the Pacific Northwest Dryland and Irrigated Cropping Systems Research with Camelina, Winter Canola, and Safflower Region Double-Cropping Dual Purpose Irrigated Biennial Canola with Green Pea Cross-cutting Projects Economic Returns to Canola Rotations in Eastern Washington Modification of Hypocotyl Length in Camelina and Canola via Manipulation of the AHL Gene Family. 67 Extension and Outreach Activities

3 Project Overview Project concept. By 2007, global increases in energy demand over supply spurred a tremendous demand for biofuels produced from crops. The concept was based on our ability to capture the sun s energy in crop plants, harvest those crops and convert them into usable fuels such as ethanol, biodiesel or combustible dry biomass. The goals were to decrease our dependence on foreign oil, keep our energy dollars at home, stimulate the farm economy, produce fuels that improve air quality and reduce global warming. Federal and state legislature and agencies committed investments in WSU and USDA ARS research and extension programs to establish and sustain the Washington Biofuels Cropping Systems (WBCS) Team. While only a small percentage of our overall energy need could be satisfied by biofuel crops, there was a keen recognition that any investment in crop biofuel feedstock production would have spin off benefits in promoting multiple crop outputs of fuel, food and feed while diversifying and strengthening regional cropping systems and markets. The concept was simple, but the execution of such a major shift in regional agricultural and energy systems posed an extreme challenge. While the Midwestern U.S. simply used their current crops of corn and soybeans as biofuel feedstocks, the inland Pacific Northwest was faced with a more daunting task, since the crops grown are not immediately adaptable to biofuel production. In 2007, discussions of a state supported project amongst WA Dept of Agriculture (WSDA); WA Department of Commerce; WSU CSANR, Energy and Agricultural Research Center (ARC); and USDA-ARS lead to 2008 WA state appropriations to WSU to evaluate the feasibility of alternative crop feedstocks, with the goal of integrating them into existing cropping systems, and strengthening the economic and environmental sustainability of these cropping systems. Since 2012 the project has focused on oilseed (canola and camelina) production as near term adoption is more evident, and WA state has invested heavily in oilseed processing industries. Today, we are more aware of global and regional opportunities for meeting increasing demands for oilseed food and fuel oil, as well as oilseed based animal feed and other specialty products. With the current focus on oilseeds, we have renamed our project as Washington Oilseed Cropping Systems (WOCS). Project support. State funding for the team was supported by WSDA, the WA Department of Commerce, and WSU Energy and WSU CAHNRS ARC. Jeff Canaan (WSDA), Dave Sjoding (WSU Energy program), Chad Kruger (WSU CSANR), Peter Moulton (WA Dept Commerce), William Pan (WSU CSS), Frank Young (USDA ARS) and Ralph Cavalieri (WSU CAHNRS ARC) collaborated on the initial proposal of this initiative to the WA state legislature. Since 2007, approximately $3 million has been allocated to WSU by the state legislature in support of the project. The team has acquired approximately $4.6 million from industry and competitive federal grant programs, WA oilseed commission, WA grain commission endowment, NSF (NSPIRE IGERT), USDA NIFA (REACCH, Sun Grant, Biofuels, Plant Health and Production) towards achieving the WBCS goals, with these federal funds mainly providing salaries and operational support of graduate students, post-doctoral associates and staff. In addition, salaries for WBCS research and extension principal investigators (Table 1) are provided by WSU ARC, WSU Extension, and USDA-ARS. 3

4 Team personnel. Statewide participation of research and extension faculty, representing the major agricultural growing regions, has been the hallmark of this project. Today, the project is advised by Mary Beth Lang (WSDA) and Jim Moyer (WSU ARC Director). Over the course of the project, 18 faculty scientists from Washington State University and USDA-ARS, representing multiple subdisciplines, have collaborated on research and extension projects (Table 1). The team is or has trained 11 graduate students and 3 post graduate research and extension associates. The team was nominated and awarded the 2014 WSU College of Agriculture, Human and Natural Resource Sciences Team Interdisciplinary Award. Project achievements. During the past seven years there have been significant increases in each step along the oilseed production chain in Washington State, including acreage, yield, processing facilities, biodiesel use, and animal feed consumption. Oilseed feedstock production is specifically identified in Governor Inslee s Strategic Budget Plan to encourage the growth of oilseed farms ( Increases in local and worldwide demand for canola, along with the targeted research and extension efforts by WBCS and researchers in Idaho and Oregon have resulted in a steady increase in WA state canola acreage. According to USDA statistics, WA oilseed production has increased from 10,000 acres in 2011 to 36,000 acres in 2013 and 45,000 acres planted for the 2014 growing season. The team has produced 21 refereed journal publications, 1 patent, 10 extension publications, and 123 abstracts and presentations at regional and national conferences and workshops. Four to six field days and tours are held per year, and an annual oilseed production and marketing conference that has developed into a major annual event, drawing over 200 participants in 2013 and 475 participants in Oilseed agronomy, economics, pest management, genetics and variety performance in the context of wheat based cropping systems are researched and extended to stakeholders. The WBCS team has specifically focused on identifying key agronomic management and variety selection strategies for maximizing oilseed production, and transferring that technology development to growers, crop consultants and oilseed processors for increasing feedstock for local biodiesel, food grade oil, and animal feed production. Recommendations and tools are being developed for plant establishment, N management, residue management, economic assessment of oilseeds in rotation, pathogen and weed control. In addition to the major regional oilseed annual conference that has evolved under this project, extension publications are being produced on topics related to the research initiatives, and oilseed production has been featured at field days and direct seed grower breakfasts. The team will continue to publish manuscripts and extension materials on the topics described above, continue to provide leadership in conference planning, field day organization, and grower/industry networking to transfer information and technology related to oilseed production. 4

5 Table 1. Past and present WBCS research scientists, extension faculty, and staff: their disciplines and research interests. Complete contact information can be found on the WOCS website. Principal Investigators, Affiliation Location Title/Role Focus Dr. William L. Pan, WSU Pullman Professor and soil scientist/ Project budget mgt and Crop and Soil Sciences Director, project PI reporting, soil fertility, root physiology Karen E. Sowers, WSU Crop and Soil Sciences R. Dennis Roe, WSU Crop and Soil Sciences Dr. Frank L. Young, USDA- ARS Dr. Scot Hulbert, WSU Crop and Soil Sciences/Plant Pathology Richland Pullman Pullman Pullman Associate in Research/Extension and outreach leadership Associate in Research/Extension and outreach leadership Research Agronomist and Weed Scientist/Project PI Cook Endowed Chair and Professor of Plant Pathology, Cropping Systems/ Project PI Web site mgt, conference planning, grower, industry listserv, extension writer Community outreach: field tours, direct seed breakfasts. Research support for Frank Young Integrated cropping systems, weed management, canola establishment in dry regions, variety testing Integrated cropping systems, camelina breeding, plant pathology Salary support WSU WBCS WBCS USDA-ARS Dr. William Schillinger Lind Professor and Scientist/ project PI Integrated cropping WSU systems, water use Dr. Vicki A. McCracken Pullman Professor of Economics/Project PI Rotational enterprise WSU budgets Dr. Ian Burke Pullman Associate Professor of Weed Oil composition, weed WSU Science/ Project PI ecology Dr. Timothy Paulitz Pullman Research Plant Pathologist/ Project Oilseed pathogens USDA-ARS PI Dr. Michael Neff Pullman Associate Professor / Scientist. Oilseed germination WSU Director, Molecular Plant Sciences Graduate Program/ Project PI characteristics Dr. Kefyalew Desta Prosser PI Soil and Water Management Biennial, intercropped WSU Scientist dual-purpose canola Dr. Hal Collins Prosser Co-PI Cellulosic, oilseed USDA-ARS rotations Dr. Steve Fransen Prosser Co-PI Forage crops, silaging WSU Dr. Stephen Guy Pullman PI Rotational benefits of WSU canola and camelina Aaron Esser Davenport PI extension agronomist oilseed rotations WSU Dale Whaley Okanogan Co-PI extension entomology Cereal leaf beetle WSU Don Llewellyn Pasco Co-PI extension animal science Canola forage and meal WSU for animal feed Dr. Craig Cogger Puyallup PI soil scientist Organic canola WSU production Dr. Tim Miller Mt Vernon PI weed scientist Western WA alternative biofuel crops WSU WSU 5

6 Technical/Administrative STAFF John Brabb Pullman Administrative Professional Budget management Derek Appel Davenport Field plot establishment and management Dryland cropping management Andy Bary Puyallup R&E Sr. Scientific Asst. Ag utilization of byproducts Ron Bolton Pullman Ag Research Tech III; Digital image Nutrient cycling and analysis, computing, statistics rhizosphere ecology John Jacobsen Lind Ag Research Tech III, Dryland camelina, Field plot establishment and canola and safflower management production Pushpa Koirala Pullman Assoc in Research, Lab manager and research technician Mary Lauver Pullman Sr Scientific Asst, Field plot establishment and management; data analysis Allyson Leonhard Prosser Associate in Research Field plot establishment and management Larry McGrew Pullman Field plot establishment and management Dennis Pittman Pullman Ag Scientific Asst Tech III. Field plot establishment and management Steve Schofstoll Lind Technical Asst III, Field plot establishment and management; statistical and data analysis Ron Sloot Pullman Field plot establishment and management Lauren Young Pullman Field operation coordination for REACCH (Obj. 3) and WBCS ALS gene manipulation of camelina and canola Spring oilseed crops for rotational management Irrigated cropping systems Dryland cropping management Dryland cropping management Camelina, canola and safflower dryland cropping systems Camelina varietal testing, rotational management Soil carbon fractionation, data management WBCS, industry support WSU WSU WSU WSU WSU WSU USDA-ARS WSU WSU WSU, Cook Endowment USDA AFRI REACCH WBCS Table 2. Past and present WBCS supported graduate students and post-doctoral associates Name Discipline Research area Ebrahiem Babiker PhD plant pathology Canola rhizoctonia and root rot resistance, camelina downy mildew Jenny Connolly Post MS assoc. economics Enterprise rotational budgets of canolawheat rotations David Favero PhD molecular genetics AHL gene manipulation Camelina seed size W. Ashley Hammac PhD soil science N, S requirements of canola; LCA of canola Meagan Hughes (Evans) MS soil science Improving freeze tolerance of winter canola Kisusan Khati M.S. Soil Science Organic amendments and irrigation management; biennial canola 6

7 Tai Maaz PhD soil science N cycling in canola rotations; building an oilseed industry Romulus Okwany PhD biological and Deficit irrigation management of canola agricultural engineering Jiwen Qiu Postdoc molecular genetics AHL gene manipulation Camelina seed size Megan Reese MS soil science Water and N use of winter canola Reuben Tayengwa PhD molecular plant sciences AHL gene manipulation Increasing camelina, canola seed size Dusty Walsh M.S. Crop Sci Camelina herbicide resistance Lauren Young MS Crop Sci, REACCH coordinator High residue farming for improving winter canola establishment Jianfei Zhao PhD & Postdoc molecular genetics AHL gene manipulation Camelina seed size 7

8 Highlights of 2013 Projects The WBCS researchers are modifying regional and worldwide oilseed production guidelines to fit the unique climate, loess and glacial soils of Washington state. Temporal and spatial variations in predominately winter precipitation, overwinter freezing and snow cover, and spring frost conditions make it feasible yet challenging to produce both winter and spring canola or camelina depending on rotational adaptability and market opportunities. Oilseed sensitivity to these environmental variables, along with limited varietal adaptation and performance data, have resulted in greater variation in oilseed yields compared to cereal crop yields in the region, which causes more economic risk for producers. In addition, introduction of oilseeds into predominately wheat rotations changes nutrient, weed and pest cycles, while at the same time offering opportunities for improvement in fertilizer efficiencies and greater weed and pest control in the new rotations. Late summer canola stand establishment in dry, hot soils and winter survival during subfreezing, plant dessicating conditions continue to be major challenges of winter canola production in eastern Washington. New experiments in 2013 increased our understanding of late summer conditions and management required for fall canola establishment with a high residue farming experiment at Ralston (p. 37) and planting date comparison at Ritzville (p. 43). At Ralston, no-till winter canola had a 95% stand establishment rate when seeded into standing triticale and non-semi-dwarf winter wheat stubble that was harvested with a stripper header in the wheat-fallow region. The standing stubble helped preserve soil moisture in the shallow seed bed. In comparison to 50-60% seedling establishment in tilled fallow treatments, stripper header treatments had 95% establishment. Direct seeding winter canola into heavy wheat stubble was also demonstrated for irrigated systems at Odessa (p. 43). In the planting date experiment near Ritzville, June and early August plantings in chemical fallowed winter wheat stubble benefitted from unusually substantial rains and produced excellent stands, while seedlings from July plantings were thwarted by soil crusting after a rain event, and by high temperatures in conjunction with low soil moisture. Unfortunately, the well-established plants in both experiments did not survive the winter, similar to the fate of most winter canola along the US Hwy 26 corridor. Minimum air temperatures of -15 to -23 C in December and February may have caused the lethal freezing damage that could not be overcome by fall KCl fertilization (p. 18). June plantings at Ritzville were documented to draw soil moisture from 180 cm depth. The spring canola N response experiment was concluded with the 2013 harvest to provide 12 site years of data for generating soil test based N recommendations, and data on N use efficiency and N partitioning (p. 18). Root scans revealed urea fertilizer bands below canola seed can cause damage to root hairs, dieback of root apices and blackening of conductive tissues. These results will be incorporated into canola N fertilizer recommendations. Rotational studies of ww-sc or sw-sp continued to provide information on rotational N cycling. Nitrogen carryover and N mineralization following canola has been assessed to be similar to grain legumes (p. 18). Companion lab experiments revealed CO 2 release rates, an indicator of mineralization, was strongly correlated to the readily available fraction of C that was NDF soluble and greatest in soil amended with canola and pea and least in wheat. N dynamics were largely explained by differences in TN, DON, and 8

9 NDF soluble N with crop residues, with canola and pea residues being more enriched in N. Another potential impact on soil quality is that canola accumulates substantially less Si than wheat in crop residues, thereby returning less Si to soil surfaces, which may eventually lessen Si induced soil crusting (p. 18). A concluding five year rotational study summarized winter wheat yielded best following legumes>oilseeds>spring cereals (p.10). Other rotation studies have shown winter wheat following canola has shown 25% yield increase. Canola in 4 year rotation at Wilke has shown promising net economic returns (p. 31). For irrigated systems, biennial canola grown for forage and grain offers opportunities for double cropping (two harvested crops per season) intensification (p. 55). Camelina following winter wheat at Lind over 7 years has shown good stand establishment except for spring frost killing in Modest camelina yields (489 lbs/acre) have been achieved due to moisture limitations (p.43). Oilseed varietal comparisons and development will identify genetic lines for optimizing yield, quality and regional adaptability. Winter canola variety trials were successfully established at two out of four locations (p. 37). Insect pressure, deer grazing and seeding conditions contributed to lack of survival at two locations. Yield ranged from 1490 to 3125 lbs/acre at Ralston and from 2070 to 3020 lbs/acre at Pomeroy (p. 37). PNW grower and industry have expressed their appreciation for the field tours held at the variety trial locations during late spring. Camelina and canola have a high variation in seed size and experiments are ongoing to determine if seed size is related to higher oil quantity and/or quality, and early seedling vigor and improved stand establishment (p. 72). Herbicide-tolerant camelina lines have been developed, and will be released in the upcoming year (p. 15). Canola variety selection decisions by many growers are based on weed problems in the field, and also by yield potential. For example, in a grassy weed infested field, a Roundup resistant variety may be chosen for high yield potential, but a grass herbicide may be applied for weed control instead of Roundup. There is concern of herbicide resistant weeds in some regions so herbicide rotation is critical to avoid resistance. Herbicide efficacy studies in 2013 resulted in feral rye control with fall applications of 15 to 20% with Assure II and Select, and nearly 70% with Roundup (p.37). Extension and outreach programming continues to be an important facet of WBCS (p. 67). A two-day oilseed production and marketing conference held in January attracted more than 200 attendees to listen to and learn from WBCS as well as other regional and international speakers. The success prompted Pacific Northwest Direct Seed Association to request a joint conference venture for From surveys of growers and industry representatives at the 2013 annual oilseed production and marketing workshops, those returning from the 2012 workshops, 88% of attendees indicated they learned at least one new concept they can use in future production practices and 80% of attendees indicated they will try growing oilseeds in the future. Field tours of winter canola variety trials and other canola research provided venues for WBCS faculty and staff presentations, along with several regional and national meetings. Throughout 2013 there were 1550 contacts made via the various events. The WBCS website continues to be a resource for oilseed information including an annually updated list of PNW oilseed supply and delivery locations, calendar of events, annual research reports, and current national and local canola news. Website visits increased from 2012; from 36 countries (up 71%), 43 states (up 39%) and 64 cities in WA (up 42%). 9

10 REGIONS 1 and 2 Eastern WA annual cropping and intermediate rainfall zones Title: Rotational Influence of Brassica Biofuel and Other Crops on Winter Wheat PI: Stephen Guy Graduate students: Ben Brimlow, M.S. Student Technical Support: Mary Lauver Funding: Background: Brassica oilseed crop in eastern Washington must fit within the regional rotational cropping systems. When grown, broadleaf crops usually precede winter wheat in rotation and studies worldwide have shown the benefit to winter wheat of following a broadleaf crop. Potential spring rotation crops that could precede winter wheat in our region include: barley; wheat; dry pea; lentil; chickpea; and four Brassica crops, camelina, canola, yellow mustard, and oriental mustard. This is not an exhaustive list, but these crops are commonly grown in rotation with winter wheat. All the Brassica crops have potential as biofuel crops and camelina is targeted as a dedicated biofuel crop currently. When evaluating the potential economic benefit of these crops, is it imperative to include the rotational effect of these crops on winter wheat. Work conducted in the 1990 s at the University of Idaho showed the potential benefit of some of these crops (Guy & Gareau, 1998). Winter wheat grown after five different broadleaf crops averaged 29% greater yield than winter wheat following winter wheat, while the rotation benefit of two spring cereals to winter wheat averaged only 9% (Guy et al., 1995). These effects are with optimum N fertilization in the winter wheat crop. This quantifies the large benefit of crop rotation on winter wheat, but needs to be quantified in Washington for multiple years and rainfall zones with current alternate crops. Objectives: 1. Evaluate spring rotation crops preceding winter wheat for relative productivity. 2. Determine the spring crop rotation influence on a following winter wheat crop. 3. Investigate the winter wheat crop s response to N fertilizer rates among the preceding spring rotation crops. Methods: These studies are two year crop sequence studies that involve eight spring crops (spring wheat, spring barley, dry pea, lentil, camelina, yellow mustard, oriental mustard, and canola) planted in year1 followed by winter wheat (year2) grown across all year1 spring crops. The year2 winter wheat planted within each of the previous spring crop areas is divided into sub-plots and fertilizer rates of 32, 64, 96, 128, 160 lb N/acre are applied with a split application of 70% in the fall and 30% in the spring. The spring crops are managed with uniform fertilizer applications to all crops except the pea and lentil that did not receive fertilizer. Plot size in year1 is 24 ft X 24 ft and year 2 plots are 4 ft X 20 ft. in four 10

11 replications of the two factor factorial split plot design. Spring plots were planted at the Moscow, ID Parker farm in 2008, at the Palouse Conservation farm in 2009, at Spillman farm in 2010 and 2011, and at the Cook Farm in 2012 near Pullman, WA. Year2 winter wheat was seeded in the fall of the same year following the spring crops. Spring planting dates were as early as practical to allow freezing avoidance for the mustard and canola crops, and this puts a crop like camelina at a disadvantage since it is not planted at an optimum time. Year2 crops were planted in October. Year1 residues were maintained on each crop area as much as possible and ground was minimally worked prior to planting Brundage 96 or ORCF-102 winter wheat with a double-disc plot drill. Table 1. Spring Crop Seed Yields, 2008 (Moscow), 2009 (Pullman-PCFS), 2010 and 2011 (Pullman- Spillman), and 2012 (Pullman-Cook Farm). Spring Crop lbs/acre avg. Avg % Variation Spring Wheat Spring Barley Dry Pea Lentil Camelina Yellow Mustard Oriental Mustard Canola Average LSD (0.05) CV (%) Results and Discussion: Spring crop yields for are presented in Table 1. The three highest yielding crops averaged across years in descending order are spring barley, spring wheat, and camelina. The mustard and canola yields tend to vary more year to year than camelina and barley. This variation is described by the average % variation from the crop average values. These results fit other experimental observations and grower experiences that report high variability for canola, mustard, and grain legume crops. High variability year to year is an impediment to successfully growing crops. Another interesting crop comparison is a ratio of barley to camelina yield that averaged 2.3 times more barley grain yield than camelina. Barley and camelina are both cool adapted, early planted spring crops that have similar growing seasons and historic barley performance might be a good indicator of camelina yield potential. Crop yields were good in 2008, pea and lentil were disadvantaged in 2009 due to seeding difficulties, and the 2010 site was variable with shallow soil, while the 2011 site was good for all crops, but camelina was injured by herbicide and downy mildew (Hyaloperonospora camelinae). Both 2011 and 2012 studies were planted later than optimum for early crops and that had a negative impact on camelina productivity as documented in previous studies (Schillinger et al, 2012). Overall yields should average close to 1400 lbs/acre for lentil and 2000 lbs/acre for pea, otherwise average yields across these years are similar to expected yields for these locations. 11

12 Table Winter Wheat Performance Following 2012 Spring Crops Wheat Yield Test wt. Height Protein Previous Spring Crop bu/acre lb/bu inches % Spring Wheat Spring Barley Dry Pea Lentil Camelina Yellow Mustard Oriental Mustard Canola Average LSD (0.05) n.s C.V. (%) Seed Yield Test wt. Height Protein N Fertilizer Rate (lb/acre) bu/acre lb/bu inches % Average LSD (0.05) 3 n.s C.V. (%) Winter wheat grain yield, test weight, protein, and plant height in 2013 for each spring crop and fertilizer rate are presented in Table 2. Wheat grain test weight and protein, and plant height were significantly different among the previous crops but grain yield was not although the highest yields were found after the grain legumes, followed by oilseed, and least following spring wheat. ORCF-102 Clearfield winter wheat was planted and sprayed with Beyond herbicide to remove weeds and volunteer spring cereals that have caused rotation problems in the past. This worked well, but one replication was lost due to a variety mix up from our seed source and a Beyond susceptible variety was planted in one replication and was sprayed out. Winter wheat grain test weight was similar among grain legumes and oilseeds and was higher than following the spring cereals. Protein was highest for grain legumes and lowest following camelina and yellow mustard, the largest oilseed biomass producers. Wheat yield increased as N fertilizer rate increased from 64 to 96 and from 96 to 128 lbs N/acre. The highest winter wheat yields occurred following spring wheat, dry pea, and lentil at 128 lbs N/acre and following all the other spring crops at 160 lbs N/acre. Grain protein increased for each N fertility rate increase. There was no significant interaction of previous crop and N rate for any parameter. 12

13 The 2012 annual report details results from similar trials conducted in 2010, 2011 and 2012 that show winter wheat yielded highest following spring legumes, followed by brassicas, then small grains. Impact/Potential Outcomes: These trials provide a direct comparison of spring crop performance that can be used by growers to determine the value of biofuel crops and expected yields relative to other crops they have grown. When reliable results show wheat performance after spring crops, growers can also assign rotational benefits to biofuel crops due to increased productivity of winter wheat and N fertilizer input costs. This information boosts growers decision-making ability to grow biofuel or any spring crop prior to winter wheat. Adoption of biofuel crops must be made rationally or failure to meet expectations is assured and has occurred historically with canola. Affiliated projects and funding: Two camelina trials were conducted near Dusty in The camelina variety trial had 17 entries and 4 replications, with an average yield of 1370 lbs/a, and no significant differences among the lines tested. Also see Guy et al., 2014 for variety performance of camelina. The camelina fertilizer trial had five fertilizer rates from 0 lbs N/A to 80 lbs N/A and 6 replications. The average yield was 1320 lbs/a, with the 80 lbs N/A fertilizer rate yielding significantly higher than the other rates. This indicates that camelina responds to applied fertilizer application and reinforces previous N fertilizer results (Wysocki, et al., 2013). Presentations and Publications: Refereed: Guy, S., D. Wysocki, W. Schillinger, T. Chastain, R. Karow, K. Garland-Campbell, I. Burke Camelina: Adaptation and performance of genotypes. Field Crops Res. 155: Wysocki, D., T. Chastain, W. Schillinger, S. Guy, R. Karow Camelina: Seed yield response to applied nitrogen and sulfur. Field Crops Res. 145:60-66 Presentation: Guy, S.O. Rotational influence of Brassica and other crops on winter wheat Walla Walla County grower meeting, Walla Walla, WA (14 January, 2014, 75 attending) Proposed Future Research/Extension for 2013/2014: Results from all five studies have been collected and analyzed separately. Combined analyses need to be conducted and orthogonal contrasts applied using cereals, grain legumes, or oilseeds as factors needs to be done. Further analyses should lead to better interpretation on the results and allow publication of the results in refereed journal and as an extension publication. References: Guy, S., D. Wysocki, W. Schillinger, T. Chastain, R. Karow, K. Garland-Campbell, and I. Burke Camelina: Adaptation and performance of genotypes. Field Crops Res. 155: Wysocki, D., T. Chastain, W. Schillinger, S. Guy, and R. Karow Camelina: Seed yield response to applied nitrogen and sulfur. Field Crops Res. 145:

14 Schillinger, W., D. Wysocki, T. Chastain, S. Guy, and R. Karow Camelina: Planting date and method effects on stand establishment and seed yield. Field Crops Res. 130: Guy, S.O. and R.M. Gareau Crop rotation, residue durability, and nitrogen fertilizer effects on winter wheat production. J. Prod. Agric. 11: Guy, S.O., R.M. Gareau, and M.K. Heikkinen Canola, rapeseed, mustard and other crop rotational influence on winter wheat productivity and N fertilizer response. P In G. Johnson and M. Lewis (ed.) Proc. PNW Canola Conf., Coeur d Alene, ID, 5-7 Nov. Montana State Univ., Bozeman Hulbert,S., S. Guy, B. Pan, T. Paulitz, B. Schillinger, D. Wysocki, and K. Sowers Camelina Production in the Dryland Pacific Northwest. WSU Extension Fact Sheet FS073E Tables/Graphs: imbedded in the report results. 14

15 Regions 1 and 2 Title: Development of Camelina Lines Resistant to Group 2 Herbicides PI: Scot Hulbert, Ian Burke Funding and Duration: Technical Support: Josh DeMacon Background: Camelina has a potential as an oilseed and valuable rotation crop in the dryland farming areas of Eastern Washington but is extremely sensitive to ALS-inhibitor (group 2) herbicides. Earlier work identified a mutation that conferred tolerance to these herbicides and we are now breeding this mutation in to a high yielding, high oil content variety. Objectives: Perform final selections of a herbicide (imidazolinone and sulfonylurea) tolerant (HT) line from a cross between our herbicide tolerant line and the cultivar Calena and evaluate additional germplasm for breeding potential. Methods: Replicated field trials of 50 lines from breeding population A were planted in 4 locations: Davenport (Wilke farm), LaCrosse, Ralston and Pullman. Yield and data was taken mainly from the Davenport and Ralston experiments, where stands were most uniform. Oil content was determined for four replications of each line. Other data taken included heading date and rate of stand establishment. Plots of other accessions and breeding lines were also planted in the Wilke Farm nurseries. These included 24 accessions from the national germplasm repository that performed well in preliminary experiments in 2012; five lines from Sustainable Oils; and 153 and 192 lines from Ht breeding populations 1 and 2, respectively. The latter two populations were derived from crosses between our original mutant SM4 and two Sustainable Oils lines, 2040 and Results and Discussion: Results from the replicated field trials indicated that 17 of the lines yielded similarly to Calena, the high yielding cultivar chosen to cross to our SM4 mutation. Oil content analysis indicated nine of these cultivars had 37% oil content or higher. These nine lines were selected to be analyzed for yield and oil content during summer 2014; following analysis one or more lines will be selected for potential HT cultivars. Individual plants were selected from 345 plots from F 3 breeding populations 1 and 2. Individual plants were again selected from each line in the greenhouse to establish F 5 lines for field analysis this summer. We examined lines from the National Plant Germplasm center and private companies in replicated yield trials at Davenport. Some of the accessions were heterogeneous and single plant selections were made. Five of the accessions yielded more than our check cultivar, Calena. Crosses were made between some of our best HT breeding lines and the five lines that out yielded Calena. 15

16 A program of recurrent selection for large seed size was initiated by intercrossing the four largestseeded germplasm accessions with three HT breeding lines. After self-fertilizing the F 1 s, F 2 seed was planted in plots in Pullman and sprayed with Beyond to select the HT trait. Roughly 100 individual plants with large seed pods were visually selected, since large seeded plants typically have larger pods. Seed from the individual plants were then sized using a series of screens. Seed from the 12 largest seeded lines were then planted and intercrossed in the greenhouse. Seed from this second cycle of intercrossing was again planted in the greenhouse to generate seed for a second cycle of selection this summer. The project will indicate what type of progress can be made in increasing seed size by conventional recurrent selection from diverse germplasm. We completed construction of two large recombinant inbred populations that are both segregating for seed size and oil content, as well as some other performance related traits. Analysis of these lines in field plots will begin this summer and will indicate whether there is an inverse relationship between seed size and oil content as has been suggested in one report. Impact/Potential Outcomes: Cultivars grown in the PNW to date have generally consisted of selected European cultivars, and the selections were not made in the PNW. There is great potential for breeding cultivars that are better adapted, and higher yielding in the PNW by making and intercrossing selections under our environmental conditions. High yielding HT cultivars will be an advancement in adaptation in the PNW because of the importance and prevalence of group 2 herbicides in our cropping systems. Cultivation of these varieties will eliminate much of the risk of Camelina production for growers, especially those that are new to growing oilseed crops. Presentations and Publications: Hulbert, S. Emerging Technologies to Advance a Camelina Industry. Jan. 22, 2013, WSU Oilseed Crop Production and Marketing Conference, Kennewick, WA (presentation, 200 attending). Hulbert, S. Genetics and Sustainable Cropping Systems. Oct. 3, Cargill-sponsored seminar series. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. Proposed Future Research/Extension for 2014/2015 The nine selected HT lines from breeding population A will be evaluated in replicated field trials this summer to select one or more lines for release as an HT cultivar in 2014 or Roughly 300 lines from breeding populations 1 and 2 will be analyzed for yield and oil content in plots in Davenport this summer. This will be used to establish a second cycle of breeding lines for possible future release. Early generation selections will be made from crosses between our first generation lines of high yielding HT cultivars and accessions we have identified that have higher yield potential than any cultivars grown in the PNW. 16

17 Preliminary analysis of our recurrent selection population for large seed size and our two mapping populations will shed light on what progress can be made breeding large seeded camelina varieties and whether this has a penalty in yield or oil content. 17

18 Regions 1 and 2 Title: Oilseed Crop Fertility PIs: William Pan and Richard Koenig Funding term and duration: Fall 2007-present Graduate students : Ashley Hammac, Tai Maaz, and Isaac Madsen, PhD Soils and NSF IGERT Fellows; Taylor Beard and Megan Reese, MS Soils Technical support: Ron Bolton, partially supported by WOCS, Lauren Young, supported by USDA AFRI REACCH, Derek Appel and Dennis Pittman Background: Canola fertility management is being tailored to the unique environment and soil conditions in the inland PNW. Canola plant nutrient uptake per unit yield is higher than soft white and hard red wheats (Koenig et al., 2011), suggesting higher levels of available nutrients supplied by native soil, fertilizer carryover or newly applied fertilizer are required for regional canola production compared to wheat nutrient management. Nevertheless, canola has a deep tap-root system as well as extensive root hairs for fully exploiting soil nutrients and water (Hammac et al., 2011; Pan et al., 2012). As a result, canola seed yield responds well to applied nitrogen (N) when residual soil levels are low but the magnitude of response is variable due to interacting factors of climate, available soil N, cultivar, and management practices. Previous extension publications recommend N application rates similar to wheat, but N recommendations are widely variable (Koenig et al., 2011). Lack of accurate accounting for non-fertilizer soil contributions may be one source of this variability in fertilizer recommendations. In addition, as early seeding of winter canola is adapted, questions arise about N and H 2 O requirements during the summer and fall months. Canola stores a higher percentage of above-ground nutrients in leaves and stems compared to wheat (Koenig et al., 2011), suggesting cycling of nutrients in residue to subsequent crops is likely one important rotational benefit of canola. Establishing proper nutrient credits for canola residues is important for improving rotational fertility management of succeeding crops (Maaz, 2013). Cold-hardiness is critical to the survival and productivity of both winter and spring canola. Fertility management of K, Cl and P nutrition may provide an agronomic tool for improving plant survival during freezing stress, as has been demonstrated in other crops such as alfalfa. Previous growth chamber research reported last year suggests KCl management might lower the freezing point and improve freeze avoidance of canola (Hughes, 2011). Canola seedlings have a single taproot while wheat has a multiple seminal root axes system. These basic root morphological differences between oilseeds and wheat suggest potentially different fertilizer placement and timing strategies, as this root architecture may be more susceptible to ammonium toxicity from banded fertilizer. Another interesting aspect of introducing canola into a wheat rotation is that canola accumulates substantially less silicon (Si) in vegetative biomass, resulting in less Si recycling to the soil surface compared to wheat. Silicon levels have a wide range of variation in plant and soil systems depending on abiotic and biotic factors. In the inland Pacific Northwest the predominant cropping system relies on wheat (a Si accumulator). Within this region, studies have shown high levels of total soil Si and evidence 18

19 of Si compounds becoming potential cementing agents therefore degrading soil quality. The dependence of Si cycling on plant type, environmental factors, and agronomic inputs needs to be assessed in order to determine if introduction of canola (a non-accumulator of Si) could enhance soil quality by reducing the occurrence or severity of soil crusting in comparison to wheat-dominated systems. Potential impacts on soil structure remain to be determined. Objectives: 1) Develop nutrient (primarily nitrogen and sulfur) management recommendations that maximize economic canola oil yield and quality, and rotational N use efficiency. 2) Determine whether enhancing KCl fertility can increase cold hardiness of canola. 3) Determine susceptibility of canola taproots and root hairs to N fertilizer bands and potential implications for fertilizer placement and timing recommendations. 4) Determine potential impact of lower Si recycling by canola on soil structure, crusting. 5) Determine water and N use efficiency of winter canola as affected by planting date and seed bed conditions. 6) Disseminate information on oilseed crop fertility management to growers in extension bulletins, and to the scientific community in peer-reviewed journal articles; Materials and Methods: N Fertility. In the 6 th year of a N rate experiment initiated by A. Hammac and being completed by T. Maaz, spring canola was planted at the Wilke Farm near Davenport and the Palouse Conservation Field Station [PCFS] near Pullman, WA). Preplant soil sampling was conducted to characterize baseline fertility conditions at each site. Post-harvest soil sampling of the root zone was conducted to determine water and N extraction depths and quantities. Plots were combine and hand harvested for grain and straw biomass and N. Treatments consisted of a range of nitrogen rates (0 to 180 kg N/ha in 45 kg increments) applied in treatments replicated four times in a randomized complete block experimental design. The N response data were fitted to a Mitscherlich model where Y = A * (1 e C ( X) ) Where: Y yield X applied N + residual soil N + mineralized N A theoretical maximum yield C efficiency factor (initial slope). N and H 2 O Use Efficiency of Winter Canola (N Fertility). Winter canola stand establishment and winterkill can present major problems, so earlier plantings may be beneficial. An on-farm winter canola seeding date trial was initiated this summer in Ritzville, in cooperation with Bill Schillinger and the Lind Dryland Research Station. Plots were established on June 10, June 26, August 5, and August 12, 2013, with four replications of each date and fallow for comparison. M. Reese is monitoring available soil moisture to six feet with neutron probe, gravimetrically-analyzed cores, and continuously-measuring Decagon sensors. KCl and Cold Tolerance Under Field Conditions. Experimental plots were established in 2013 at three locations, Dusty, Ralston, and Davenport, WA, the same locations as in The plots at Davenport, WA, were planted on September 3, 2013, late by canola standards, in the hopes of providing the most highly-stressed scenario to test efficacy of KCl application. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with broadcast applied KCl at rates of 0, 28 and 112 kg Cl/ha in 8 x 50 ft plots in 2012/13 19

20 and expanded to 75 ft lengths at Ralston and Davenport in 2013/2014. Stand counts, tissue Cl, and grain yields were measured for each plot. Ammonium toxicity of canola roots: Time lapsed scanning was used to determine effects of ammonium banding on canola root development. Scanning was conducted at 2400 dpi at 30 minute intervals. Si cycling by canola. The greenhouse experiment involved growing both wheat (Triticum aestivum Louise ), and canola (Brassica napus) to maturity. Plants were grown in one kg of a 50:50 mixture of Sunshine Mix #2 and Palouse silt loam. All plants received 440 mg N/kg of soil over three applications of fertilizer. After harvest the residue was analyzed for C:N and plant Si concentrations utilizing the molyblue method. The remaining residue was used in the decomposition study. The residues were amended to 15 g of autoclaved, acid washed, coarse grain sand. This mixture was inoculated with 2.5 ml of microbial solution. Samples were placed in a sealed container with an open water source in order to maintain constant moisture. Samples were destructively sampled at 0, 8, and 12 weeks for weight loss and plant Si concentration utilizing the molyblue method. The rotation history comparison incubation utilized a Ritzville silt loam acquired from Ralston, WA. Two fields were sampled: one that had been cropped in a cereal rotation for over 50 years, and one that has had canola in the rotation for approximately 25 years. Soils were air dried and sieved through a 2mm sieve. In order to eliminate some variables occurring from the presence of residue, four levels of silicic acid were randomly applied to each soil. Samples were maintained at room temperature and field capacity. Destructive sampling occurred over time for a period of 28 days. Measurements taken included: surface resistance, soil Si, and crust thickness. Results and Discussion N Fertility. A regression of the N supply at economically optimum N rates revealed that 12 to 17 kg total N supply was required to obtain 100 kg of canola grain where yields ranged from 500 to 2500 kg/ha at PCFS and Wilke during the first 5 years of the N response trials. This range of unit N requirements is higher than reported in various extension guides, summarized by Koenig (2011), likely due to incomplete accounting of soil N supply in previous reports. Canola yields were well correlated with growing season precipitation (Fig. 1b). In 2013, non-fertilizer N supply was 101 kg N/ha at the Wilke Farm at Davenport, WA, and 99 kg N/ha at PCFS at Pullman, WA. The 2013 spring canola grain yields at Wilke were significantly higher than in previous years, but still unresponsive to additions of N fertilizer above 40 kg/ha (Fig. 1a). Grain yields at Pullman were lower than average, but still somewhat responsive to N fertilizer. The economic optimal N rates will be calculated and combined with the other eight site years to formulate the unit N requirement that will be recommended in future extension recommendations. 20

21 Figure 1. a. Grain yield response to N supply (residual N + OM mineralization + fertilizer N) at Pullman (circles) and Wilke (squares). The left-most plotted point on each response curve represents 0 N fertilizer applied. b maximum grain yields vs. precipitation. N Fertility: Rotational N use. Our team has adopted a multiple-year N budget approach to track N dynamics over a three year spring canola-spring pea-winter wheat cropping sequence in the annual cropping wet-cool and fallow-transition zones. This research follows the N fertility described above at the same two locations, in order to determine canola-based rotational N use efficiencies. Our N budgets indicate that canola, like winter wheat, is effective at scavenging N from the soil profile. In 2011 and 2012, residual nitrate was less than 50 kg N/ha in the top 4 feet of soil, after winter wheat and canola, which can exceed 60 kg N/ha following spring peas. Although the N supply is typically greater than the total amount of N exported in grain for the entire rotation, crop residues can retain 8 to 40% of the total N inputs which are not subject to immediate loss. Furthermore, residual inorganic N remaining after canola and winter wheat represents less than 10% to 33% of the total N supplied to the crops. N use indices indicate that winter wheat is a more efficient N use (grain production per unit N supply) crop than peas and canola, but has a relatively greater dependence on fertilizer N. Residual inorganic N is able to satisfy a greater proportion of the N requirement for canola at yield-optimizing fertilizer rates, while peas reduce the need for fertilizer N through biological N fixation. In this rotation, the following crop species and N fertilization rate of canola resulted in apparent increases in net N mineralization, or the accumulation of inorganic N, of 20 kg N/ha or less measured in spring wheat check-plots (unfertilized) and in soil cores (0-15 cm) collected from the field. These findings will help support new soil test and yield potential-based N fertilizer recommendations for canola based on estimates of N uptake, N utilization efficiencies and N mineralization of residues within a rotation. N Fertility: Residue decomposition. Conflicting studies indicate that net N mineralization can either increase or decrease when following canola relative to cereal crops (Engstrom, 2010; Soon and Arshad, 2002). Understanding decomposition and N mineralization is critical for residue and fertility management within a crop rotation that includes canola under zero-tillage. Interactions between N fertility and biochemistry in the decomposition and N release/retention of various crops requires further study, ultimately to determine whether more or less fertilizer N is needed following canola. In 2013, we collected nine crop residues from canola, wheat, and pea crops with varying N contents and characterized the residues with NMR (Bruker DRX N CP/MAS solid state NMR and Varian Vx 400 1H NMR) and elemental analysis for total C and N, solubel and NH4+/NO3-, and dissolved organic C and 21

22 N. Proximate fiber analysis (ANKOM 200 sequential fiber digestion) was performed to determine the Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), Acid detergent fiber (ADF), and Acid detergent lignin (ADL) total and stepwise mass and TC/TN determination. We conducted three laboratory experiments examining residue mass and TC and TN losses, weekly CO2 evolution rates (GRACEnet protocol for gas sampling at 0, 2, 4, and 6 hour deployments), and net N-mineralization rates via destructive sampling for NH4+-N and NO3-- N in a Palouse soil amended with 4 g/kg of residue at over 16 weeks. We found that canola residue, like pea, had a higher proportion of soluble components. Most residue N was easily soluble and not bound up in structural carbohydrates. Dissolved organic N and NDF soluble N was strongly related to the total N content of the residues in all crop residues (R2 = 0.97 and 0.99). Over the 16 weeks, mass and C losses from canola were similar to pea and wheat, despite differences in biochemistry. Within the first 4 weeks, the average CO2 mineralization rate was strongly correlated to the readily available fraction of C that was NDF soluble and greatest in soil amended with canola and pea and least in wheat. N dynamics were largely explained by differences in TN, DON, and NDF soluble N with crop residues, with canola and pea residues being more enriched in N on average. However, residues with C:N ratios above 25:1 did not differ in their net N immobilization potential, suggesting overall similarities in quality. However, further research needs to consider the interactive effects of residue quantity and quality on N cycling. KCl Fertility and Cold Tolerance. Stand counts taken by L. Young in May 2013 to determine winter survival provided no good evidence that KCl fertilization influenced the stand. Yields were much lower in 2013 than 2012, and showed no response to KCl fertilizer application. Average yields were 302 kg/ha at Ralston, 547 kg/ha at Dusty, and 932 kg/ha at Wilke. Freezing temperatures in early May caused some bud abortion, so spring injury likely influenced crop yields more than winter loss. Ammonium Toxicity of Canola Roots. Sequential scans of a canola root encountering a urea fertilizer band 5 cm below the germinating seed revealed rapid dieback of the root apices and blackening of the conductive tissues as previously observed. With high resolution scanning, I. Madsen documented damage to the root hairs with shortening and curling as immediate symptoms (Fig. 2). A movie of this progression will be posted on the WOCS website. Fig. 2. Canola apical root and root hair dieback after encountering ammonium band from left to right. 22

23 Si cycling by canola. The greenhouse experiment results showed that upon harvest the wheat residue accumulated approximately 57% more Si than canola. The C:N ratio of the wheat residue had an average value of 80:1 and the canola had an average value of 100:1. The decomposition study showed that wheat had a slightly faster decomposition rate compared to canola, consistent with the lower starting C:N ratio of the wheat residue. However, the loss of Si from both residues was minimal. This suggests that more time is required for the more recalcitrant pools of Si within the residue to be fully decomposed and released back into soil solution. The rotation history comparison incubation showed that application of silicic acid on both soils increased soil Si, surface resistance, and crust thickness (Fig. 1). The soil previously cropped in wheat had higher soil Si, surface resistance, and crust thickness compared to the canola system demonstrating the influence crop rotation can have on Si related soil properties. As shown from the experiments under controlled conditions, it can be concluded that Si cycling does affect important soil physical properties. Therefore it may be beneficial for growers to consider crops low in Si, such as canola, for their cropping system. Future experiments should include developing long-term field experiments with consideration to the influencing factors found in these experiments. Figure 1. Effects of silicic acid treatment on crust thickness. Impact/Potential Outcomes: Three research manuscripts and one WSU extension bulletin will be written in 2014 to culminate the N/S fertility study of spring canola, providing growers with research based N/S fertility recommendations, and for determining economically optimum N rates. Information on N timing and placement (effects on root health) will also help guide growers in defining best N management practices. Data on N cycling in canola rotations will be written into a fourth manuscript and provide recommendations on assessing N mineralization potential following canola. KCl evaluations in the field are ongoing to assess efficacy in fortifying canola s cold tolerance. Research manuscripts on canola and Si effects on soil physical properties, and NH 4 toxicity in canola roots and other crops will be written in Affliliated funding. This project dovetails with the UI/OSU/WSU USDA NIFA funded REACCH project examining crop diversification and N management impacts on climate change. NSF IGERT funded PhD students in the NSPIRE project have all been involved with canola research and extension. 23

24 Proposed Future Research/Extension. The focus of N fertility will shift to winter canola. Our root studies and past research in other canola growing areas have suggested that heavy N fertilization at canola planting is not a good practice. In fallow areas growers are accustomed to fertilizing fallow fields in the spring for wheat, and this might be a good practice for canola as well to ensure that a bulk of N distributes into the eventual 180 cm root zone. However, excessive N may stimulate too much vegetative growth going into the winter. Split N with spring supplemental N during winter canola regrowth might also be warranted. A N rate x timing experiment will be set up in the summer fallow region, with early seeded canola established when there is favorable soil moisture for seedling establishment. This will add to M. Reese s and L. Young s assessments of N and water use efficiency of winter canola in fallow systems. KCl experiments will be continued. An online N fertility calculator will be developed in concert with the written extension bulletin to parallel the wheat N recommendation approach. International policy In , the NCRE lab of WSU exchanged scholar visits with canola researchers in the Great Plains of Canada and Australia. The purpose of this international travel was to meet with key experts at workshops, conferences, and strategic research planning meetings. The aim of the exchange was to evaluate the onset of canola production in WA within an historical context of the growth of canola in Canada and Australia, both serving as two major producers of canola in semi-arid regions. The evaluation detailed the key policies and events that encouraged adoption of canola in Canada and Australia. In 2014, results from this experience were presented in a policy session at the WA Oilseed and Direct Seed Conference. This summary will be written as a chapter of T. Maaz s thesis and refereed publication opportunities will be explored. Refereed Publications in None Conference Abstracts and Presentations in McClellan Maaz, T., B. Pan, F. Young, and H. Kaur Intensification and Diversification of Cropping Systems in the Inland Pacific Northwest. Far West Agribusiness Association Washington Annual Meetings, December 9-11, 2013, Pasco, WA. Beard, T.L., T. M. Maaz, K. Borrelli, C. Xiao, and W.L. Pan A comparison of wheat and canola residue: fiber and silica composition impacts on soil quality. Western Society of Crop Science Annual Meeting. June Pendleton, OR. McClellan Maaz, T.M., W.L. Pan, R. Koenig, W.A. Hammac, F. Young Nitrogen use by Pacific Northwest Dryland Canola (Brassica napus) and its effect on rotational N balances. Western Society of Crop Science Annual Meeting. June Pendleton, OR. Beard, T.L., T.M. Maaz, K. Borrelli, C. Xiao, and W.L. Pan The effects of silicon and fiber composition from canola and wheat residue on soil quality. Soil Science Society of America Annual Meeting. November 3-6. Tampa, FL. McClellan Maaz, T.M., T.L. Beard, W.L. Pan Nitrogen and Carbon Mineralization from Canola, Pea, and Wheat Residues With Differing N Content and Carbohydrate Composition. Soil Science Society of America Annual Meeting. November

25 Research manuscripts in preparation Beard, T., J. Harsh, W. Pan Si cycling in wheat and canola and silica effects on soil crusting. Geoderma Hammac, R. Koenig, I. Burke, and W. Pan Canola responses to nitrogen and sulfur fertility: grain protein content and fatty acid profile. Agron. J. Hammac, A., T. Maaz, I. Burke, and W. Pan Canola responses to nitrogen and sulfur management: defining economically optimum nitrogen rates. Agron. J. Hammac, A., T. Maaz, R. Koenig, and W. Pan Canola responses to nitrogen and sulfur fertility: N use efficiency and its components. Agron. J. Maaz, T., R. Koenig, W. Pan Nitrogen cycling and N use efficiency of wheat and canola rotations. Agron. J. Pan, W., T. Maaz and obj 3 team Intensification and diversification of cropping systems in the Inland Pacific Northwest. Agron. J. Pan, W., I. Madsen, L. Graves, T. Sistrunk, R. Bolton Ammonium toxicity of root apices and root hairs. Crops and Soils. 25

26 Regions 1 and 2 Title: Assessment of Seeding Approaches for Effective Winter and Spring Canola Establishment PIs: I. Burke, D. Lyon, and F. L. Young Funding term and duration: $34,000; 2 Years Graduate students: Support for 12 months of MS student Technical Support: None Requested Background: Canola production in Eastern Washington is incredibly challenging. Due to lack of cold tolerance, winter canola is difficult to establish in the high rainfall zone. In the intermediate and low rainfall zones, lack of moisture and high soil temperatures can make canola establishment difficult. Coupled with high seed costs, growers face a very difficult and risky decision when choosing canola as a crop. In recent work, canola establishment with conventional drills has yielded observations of increased survivorship of canola when multiple seed (>3) germinate and emerge in close proximity (F. Young, personal observations). Such planting arrangements are possible with a singulating planter equipped with a hill-drop mechanism. Weed control is challenging in crop rotations that include wheat, as growers must use herbicides in canola with little to no soil residual activity to protect wheat. However, canola also presents many opportunities for improved weed control. Two transgenic events are available that enable herbicide selectivity for glyphosate and glufosinate. Glyphosate is commonly used in the region, but glufosinate is not. Identification of suitable varieties with different herbicide resistances than that commonly used in the region would allow diversification of the system. An additional challenge growers face is fallow weed management. Many products used in fallow systems have the same problem as products used in wheat long rotation restrictions for canola. Demand for information on alternative herbicide fallow systems is high. Finally, carryover of herbicides in PNW soils presents a severe restriction on rotation options. Growers need additional information on how herbicides with canola rotation restrictions interact with PNW soil to enable them to make better decisions when choosing herbicides. Objectives: Therefore, we have four objectives: 1) to evaluate seeding rate and method using a singulating planter compared to a conventional drill for spring and winter canola establishment across the region; 2) conduct efficacy trials using glufosinate-resistant, glyphosate-resistant, and conventional spring and winter (not transgenic) canola varieties to identify weaknesses and strengths of the different systems; 3) design fallow weed management systems for wheat fallow canola fallow systems; and 4) evaluate adsorption/desorption and degradation kinetics of herbicides with carryover restrictions to oilseed crops in inland PNW soils. Methods: Objective 1) Planting method and density will be addressed using a double disk singulating planter with 10 row spacing compared to a conventional double disk drill. Depending on field size, 5 to 9 populations ranging from 1 to 18 seed/ft will be planted using each planter in stripped split-plots. In addition, the singulating planter will be configured for a hill-drop, where multiple seed are planted together in a single spot at a prearranged spacing. Trials will be arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Only a single canola variety will be evaluated in each trial and variety 26

27 will be dependent on location. Trials in the intermediate rainfall zone will utilize winter canola, and trials in the high rainfall zone will utilize spring canola. Crop population, canopy development, and yield will be monitored. Objective 2) For spring canola in the high rainfall zone, three different canola varieties (glyphosatetolerant, glufosinate-tolerant, and a non-transgenic variety) will serve as whole plot treatments and four herbicide treatments (non-treated check, trifluralin PPI at 0.75 lb ai/a, trifluralin PPI at 0.75 lb ai/a + POST product, POST product) within each canola variety treatment will serve as split-plot treatments. For winter canola in the intermediate rainfall zone, two different canola varieties (glyphosate-tolerant and a non-transgenic variety) will serve as whole plot treatments and four herbicide treatments (nontreated check, trifluralin PPI at 0.75 lb ai/a, trifluralin PPI at 0.75 lb ai/a + POST product, POST product) within each canola variety treatment will serve as split-plot treatments. Weed control, plant stands, and crop injury ratings will be taken. Objective 3) Fallow weed control in canola systems will depend on herbicides without residual activity. As fallow weed control typically involves more than one application, several studies will be designed to evaluate timing of application and tank-mixture partners for management of broadleaf weeds. Canola will be planted into the trial to evaluate any herbicide carryover injury. Weed control, plant stands, and crop injury ratings will be taken. Objective 4) Adsorption of an herbicide to a soil is studied by applying a known amount of herbicide to a soil:water slurry in a glass centrifuge tube, allowing time for the herbicide to interact with the soil, and then using a centrifuge to separate the soil and water phases. Once the soil and water phases are separated, the amount of herbicide adsorbed to the soil can be determined by extraction and quantification of the herbicide from the soil or by calculating the difference between the initial amount applied and the amount determined to be in the water phase. Once the herbicide has adsorbed to the soil, it is important to determine to what degree the herbicide is bound, either permanently bound or susceptible to varying levels of reentry into the water phase. Therefore, the desorption of an herbicide is determined by removing the water from the adsorption study, then adding the same amount of water back to the soil, and allowing time for the adsorbed herbicide to interaction with the water again. The amount of herbicide desorbed in determined by how much herbicide is determined to be in the water. Using a collection of PNW soils, we propose quantify soil interactions for herbicides with known canola rotation problems to potentially identify soil properties beyond ph that would enable shorter rotation intervals, and also identify potential remediation treatments. Results and Discussion: Impact/Potential Outcomes: Our first attempt at addressing Objectives 1 and 2, a trial planted in the fall of 2012, was lost due to lack of moisture for germination. Objectives 3 and 4 are new objectives. Realized populations of canola in eastern Washington are a fraction of the planted population. Understanding how to plant and achieve an effective stand of canola while minimizing seed costs and stand loss would eliminate a significant hurdle currently blocking widespread canola production. Effective weed control in canola can aid in weed control in wheat as long as crop injury to wheat is not an issue. The use of transgenic canola varieties may provide excellent weed control without herbicide carryover concerns. 27

28 Affiliated projects and funding: Dr. Frank Young s Stand establishment of winter canola in the low- to intermediate-rainfall zones of the Pacific Northwest is the primary affiliated project. Dr. Young s research group has observed canola planted by a conventional drill overwinters more successfully when the drill plants multiple seed in the same vicinity (an error by the drill!). Presentations and Publications: Results from this work will be shared with growers at field days, at winter Extension meetings, and through articles published in trade magazines and posted to Extension webpages. Information gleaned from this project will be used in an Extension fact sheet or bulletin on canola production. Proposed Future Research/Extension: Extension products from this research will be created at the earliest opportunity. Initial products will likely include a brief summary of findings for first year efforts. Ultimately, two extension bulletins addressing the two objectives will be created. 28

29 Regions 1, 2 and 3 Title: Canola and Camelina Diseases PI: Timothy Paulitz CoPIs: Scot Hulbert, Bill Schillinger Funding term and duration: ongoing Technical Support: Kurt Schroeder Background: The common practice for planting winter canola after winter wheat in the irrigated region of Odessa, Washington is to use burning and plowing to manage residue. The perception is that canola stands cannot be established without these practices. Growers have believed that the wheat stubble is toxic to winter canola. W. Schillinger has conducted 4 years of trials at Lind and Odessa, looking at alternatives such as residue removal and direct-seeding. T. Paulitz has been looking at pathogens in these experiments. In the initial set of irrigated trials at Lind, Rhizoctonia solani AG 2-1 was responsible for reducing stands of canola in plots at Lind. But due to bird problems, the plots were moved to grower fields in Odessa. Objectives: Assess the effect of diseases in a cropping systems trial to evaluate residue removal, burning, tillage, and no-till practices to establish winter canola after winter wheat. Methods: Four winter wheat stubble management treatments were established in mid-to-late August 2012 prior to planting winter canola. These treatments are: i. Stubble burned + disked ii. Stubble chopped + moldboard plowed iii. Stubble burned, then direct seeded iv. Direct seeding into standing and undisturbed stubble. Plots were surveyed on Oct. 23, Visual assessments of disease were made, and the soil was analyzed in a bioassay in Spring Soil from each treatment was placed in 2 inch pots, 4 pots/treatment, with 4 replicate blocks. Pots were planted with 10 canola seeds (cv. Athena). Over the next 3 weeks, emergence and disease (post-emergence damping-off) were assessed. Shoot dry weights were taken at the end of the experiment. Soil was also sampled for molecular quantification of AG 2-1. Results and Discussion: Results are shown in Figure 1. No disease was detected in the field, either in Fall or Spring surveys. There was no significant disease detected in the bioassay. The fumigation in the previous potato crops may be reducing the levels of inoculum, allowing growers to use direct seeding and still get a good crop. Impact/Potential Outcomes: Disease pressure from Rhizoctonia solani AG 2-1 on winter canola is low, in irrigated circles in the Odessa area following winter wheat, where potatoes are in rotation. The fumigation in the potato rotation may be reducing inoculum of this pathogen. Yields of winter canola direct-seeded into winter wheat stubble were comparable to other treatments with burning and tillage. This indicates that 29

30 Percent growers can use techniques which will decrease soil erosion, input costs and increase soil organic matter, without sacrificing yield. Additional Surveys We continue to monitor the situation with the reports of blackleg in the Bonners Ferry area of Boundary County, which was first reported in Kurt Schroeder visited fields in early June as part of a U. of Idaho field day, but was unable to see many symptoms in the field because it was too early. Next year, we plan on more detailed surveys later in the season. Affiliated projects and funding: Washington Department of Ecology, Agricultural Burning Practices and Research Task Force, W. Schillinger, PI. Management of Fresh Wheat Residue for Irrigated Winter Canola Production Presentations and Publications: 1. Agostini, A., Johnson, D. A., Hulbert, S., Demoz, B., Fernando, W. G. D. and Paulitz, T. C First report of blackleg caused by Leptosphaeria maculans on canola in Idaho. Plant Disease 97: Babiker, E. M., Hulbert, S. H., Schroeder, K. L. and Paulitz, T. C Evaluation of Brassica species for resistance to Rhizoctonia solani and binucleate Rhizoctonia (Ceratobasidum spp.) under controlled environment conditions. European Journal of Plant Pathology DOI /s Paulitz, T. C. and Schroeder, K Fact Sheet. Sclerotinia Stem Rot or White Mold of Canola. Extension Bulletin: Proposed Future Research/Extension for 2014/2015 Rhizoctonia disease on canola. Extension Bulletin. Paulitz and Schroeder Effect of Residue Treatments on Emergence and Damping-0ff of Canola, Schibel Plot, Spring, burned and disked chopped and moldboard plow direct seed standing stubble Treatments burned and direct seeded Percent emergence Percent damping off 30

31 Title: Oilseed Production and Outreach PI: Scot Hulbert Co-PIs: Aaron Esser REGION 2 Eastern WA low to intermediate rainfall Funding term and duration: ; 2012-present Technical Support: Derek Appel Background: One of the best ways to facilitate change is to show and demonstrate the new practice. The production of oilseed crops to most farmers in intermediate rainfall region of eastern Washington is still very low in relationship to wheat. Incorporating oilseed crops in rotation has a lot of positive attributes but also has a multitude of negative attributes mostly focused on production and economic risks and experience. Objectives: The objective of this project is to help educate farmers to reduce their risk and provide experience producing canola oilseed crops and being transparent in oilseed production factors at the WSU Wilke Research and Extension Farm. Methods: Outreach efforts, including the WSU Northern Lincoln County Field Tour, provide current research finding on oilseed production to farmers. Oilseed crops have also been incorporated into the WSU Wilke Farm. The WSU Wilke Farm is a 320 acre research and extension facility located on the edge of Davenport, WA. This farm is comprised of eight large scale commercial plots divided into a four-year, three-year and continuous crop rotation. Spring canola has been incorporated into the 4-year crop rotation following winter wheat and proceeding spring grain to help reduce cereal rye infestations on the farm, improve profitability and increase overall awareness. Results and Discussion: An estimated 40 farmers and field men attended the WSU Northern Lincoln County Field Day this year and learned about multiple oilseed production factors. On the Wilke Farm the spring canola incorporated into rotation allowed for a second mode of action to be utilized to help limit cereal rye infestations, yielded a respectable 1,748 lb/acre and generated an economic return over variable costs of $201.15/acre. Table 1 summarizes the three plots in a three-year cropping rotation. Table 2 summarizes the four plots, one of which was the aforementioned spring canola plot, in a fouryear crop rotation and Table 3 summarizes the plot that remains in a continuous cereal grain rotation. Soil compaction, soil tests, and wireworm population data are being collected in the spring of the year on each of the eight plots to help determine and demonstrate spring canola attributes in rotation. Impact/Potential Outcomes: Showing farmers how to produce oilseeds and demonstrating on a commercial scale that spring canola incorporated into rotation can be profitable and mitigate weed infestations helps farmers incorporate oilseeds into their farm operation. Table 4 summarizes the 31

32 economic return over input costs for the past 2 years for each plot at the WSU Wilke Farm. Overall, the two plots with spring canola the last 2 years are ranked the greatest and those plots with a history of notill fallow over the past 2 years are ranked lowest. Farmers have started to adopt winter canola production over the last couple years across the region, and they are also starting to incorporate spring canola into their rotation in the future. Affiliated projects and funding: This project is affiliated with the Regional Approach to Climate Change project focused on developing and implementing sustainable agricultural practices for cereal production. The funding is $10,000/year. Presentations and Publications: Esser, A.D., D. Appel Spring Canola on the WSU Wilke Research and Extension Farm in Pacific Northwest Oilseed Conference. Kennewick, WA. February (Poster) Esser, A.D Controlling Wireworms in Cereal Grain Production Plus WSU Wilke Canola. Central Washington Grain Growers Meeting. Wilbur, Washington, January 30. (Presentation) Esser, A.D Controlling Wireworms in Cereal Grain Production Plus WSU Wilke Canola. Reardan Grain Growers Meeting. Reardan, Washington, March 5. (Presentation) Esser, A.D., R. Brunner Spring Canola Production in Almira. Northern Lincoln County Field Tour. Wilbur, WA. June 26. (Presentation) Esser, A.D Weed Control Benefits of Canola in Rotation. Washington State Weed Association Annual Conference. Wenatchee, WA. November 6-8. (Presentation) Esser, A.D and D. Appel WSU Wilke Research and Extension Farm, Operations, Production, and Economic Performance, Adams County Technical Report WREF 13. Proposed Future Research/Extension for 2014: In 2014 this project will provide farmer education through outreach including the WSU Wilke Research and Extension Farm tour and the WSU Wilke Research and Extension Farm information dissemination activities. Oilseed production will continue to be incorporated into the Wilke Farm production as approved by the farm management committee. This will include Roundup Ready canola on the north side that is being used to bring CRP back into crop production. It will also include Liberty Link canola on the south side of the farm that is incorporated into the 4 year rotation. The results will be distributed through an Adams County Technical Report. 32

33 Table 1. Three-year crop rotation production, gross economic return, input costs, and summary at the Wilke Farm in Cropping Specifics Plot 2 Plot 5 Plot 7 Acreage Crop Crop Production Glee HWSW No-till Fallow Xerpha SWWW Yield 60.9 bu/ac bu/ac Mkt Grade Gross Economic Return #1 DNS % 12.0% Mkt Price $5.81/bu - $5.75/bu Gross Return $354.00/ac - $492.00/ac Input Costs Seed $21.70/ac - $18.12/ac Fertilizer $84.78/ac - $79.87/ac Herbicides $35.66/ac $43.89/ac $26.30/ac Fungicide $2.84/ac - $7.50/ac Total $144.98/ac $43.89/ac $131.79/ac Summary Return over Costs $209.02/ac -$43.89/ac $360.21/ac - #2 SWW %, sprout 3.5, falling number Year Rotation Return over Input Costs $215/ac Costs do not include fixed costs associated with the farm. 33

34 Table 2. Four-year crop rotation production, gross economic return, input costs, and summary at the Wilke Farm in Plot 1 Plot 3 Plot 4 Plot 6 Cropping Specifics Acreage Crop Crop Production Diva SWSW Multiple Spring Canola No-till Fallow Glee DNS Wheat Yield 65.7 bu/ac 1,748 lb/ac 1.45 ton/ac 50.4 bu/ac #1 SWW 62.6 Mkt Grade 0.4% Gross Economic Return #1 Canola 0.8% #2 BLY 54.0 #1 DNS % 12.6% Mkt Price $6.58/bu $0.2028/lb $237/ton $6.32/bu Gross Return $432.37/ac $354.47/ac $344.53/ac $31852/ac Input Costs Seed $22.29/ac $52.00/ac $18.56/ac $21.70/ac Fertilizer $57.45/ac $57.45/ac $52.1/ac $84.78/ac Herbicides $38.19/ac $19.79/ac $14.92/ac $35.66/ac Fungicide $2.84/ac - - $2.84/ac Pod Sealant - $24.09/ac - Total $120.77/ac $153.32/ac $85.58/ac $144.98/ac Summary Return over Costs $311.60/ac $201.15/ac $258.95/ac $173.54/ac 4-Year Rotation Return over Input Costs $168/ac Costs do not include fixed costs associated with the farm. 34

35 Table 3. Continuous crop rotation production, gross economic return, input costs, and summary at the Wilke Farm in Cropping Specifics Acreage 57.7 North Side Crop Crop Production Yield Mkt Grade Gross Economic Return Mkt Price Gross Return Lenetah Spring Barley 1.73 ton/ac #1 BRL % $156/ton $269.88ac Input Costs Seed Fertilizer Herbicides $24.57/ac $70.94/ac $35.65/ac Fungicide - Total Summary Continuous Rotation Return over Input Costs $131.16/ac $139/ac Costs do not include fixed costs associated with the farm. 35

36 Table 4. Two year average economic return over input costs for 2012 and 2013 for each of the plots at the WSU Wilke Farm. Plot Yr Average Rank $/ac N Plot 1 and Plot 2 have had spring canola in the last 2 years and Plot 7, Plot 5 and Plot 4 have had no-till fallow. Plot 2, Plot 6 and Plot N have been in continuous cereal grain rotations. 36

37 Title: Winter canola production in the low- to intermediate-rainfall zones of the Pacific Northwest PI: Frank Young Co-PI s: Bill Pan, Ian Burke and Dale Whaley Funding term and duration: July 2008 to present Technical support: Funding provides half-time support for an Associate in Research and time slip personnel through the Crop and Soil Sciences Department, Washington State University. Background: Approximately 60% of the cereal and grain legume production areas of the PNW are characterized by the winter wheat/summer fallow system which is plagued by winter annual grass weeds such as jointed goatgrass, feral rye, and downy brome. This region provides the greatest opportunity to expand oilseed acreage in the PNW. Growers have become increasingly interested in producing winter canola in this region to improve pest management strategies, diversify markets (food, fuel, and feedstock), and increase sustainability. Previous funding from the WOCS allowed us to initiate the first-ever winter canola seeding date and rate studies in the non-irrigated, low- to intermediate rainfall zones to improve canola emergence and stand establishment. Data indicate that the optimum time to plant winter canola is between July 25 and August 25 and most importantly when Mother Nature tells you, i.e., when cooler temperatures (85 F) are forecast after planting. Planting prior to July 25, soil water may be limiting for the canola and insect pests may have to be controlled at a significant cost to the grower. Planting after August 25 yields may be reduced because of the shortened fall growing season. At the present time, there has been no research on winter canola variety trials in the wheat/fallow region. At the present time, there has been no research on winter canola variety trials in the wheat/fallow region. The U of I conducts variety trials in the irrigated area, high rainfall annual cropping region, and the high-end of the intermediate rainfall zone. Varieties that tolerate cold temperatures and open winters need to be found for this region to reduce production risks. In the PNW, winter annual grass weeds (especially feral rye) are a major problem in winter wheat. The only effective control measure for feral rye in the growing crop is to use imazamox resistant winter wheat varieties. However, research in the southern Great Plains has shown great variation in feral rye tolerance to imazamox (Peeper et al., 2008). Therefore crop and chemical rotation are important strategies for the management of feral rye. In the PNW there has been no research on herbicide efficiency and time of herbicide applications for the control of feral rye in winter canola. Previous funding from the WOCS has also allowed us to collect 1-yrs data on feral rye control in winter canola. As with canola varieties and herbicide efficacy research, there is currently no entomology research being conducted in winter canola in the low to intermediate rainfall zone. As more and more canola acres are planted in eastern WA, so does the potential of having to contend with one or more insect pests that infest this crop. Objectives 1. Monitor insects in first-time planted winter canola, second-time planted winter canola and frequently planted winter canola in north central WA. 2. Evaluate herbicides for feral rye control in winter canola to improve quality of future winter wheat crops and prevent herbicide resistance in weeds Region 2 37

38 3. Evaluate several winter canola varieties for winter survival in the wheat/fallow region of WA 4. Evaluate the use of a stripper header and tall cereal varieties to introduce winter canola into a high residue chemical fallow system. 5. Assist with research to evaluate the effectiveness of KCl to improve winter survival of canola. Methods: Monitor insects. In Douglas and Okanogan Co. there are winter canola fields planted the first time, twice, and four to five times. These fields will be monitored throughout the growing season for insect infestations. The cabbage seed pod weevil and aphids are of primary concern in this region. Herbicide efficacy study in winter canola. A third year of an herbicide efficacy study for the management of feral rye is being conducted at Okanogan, WA in Select (clethodim), Assure II (quizalofop), and Roundup (glyphosate) were applied in the fall, in the spring, and in the fall plus spring to a natural infestation of feral rye in winter canola which was planted September Percent weed control, weed seed produced, weed biomass, crop yield, and oil quantity will be recorded. Winter canola variety trials. We are continuing to conduct winter canola variety trials to determine the best varieties to plant in the wheat/fallow region. Fourteen varieties were planted in 2013 at Okanogan, Bridgeport, Ralston, Pomeroy, and Pullman, including conventional and herbicide tolerant/resistant varieties. Varieties selected were from the University of Idaho, Kansas State University, Croplan Genetics, Rubisco Seeds, and Spectrum Crop Development. Depending on seeding conditions, an array of drills were used to plant the winter canola - a Monosem plate planter, a JD deep-furrow HZ, and an AgPro air seeder. Cold hardiness/winter survival was determined by recording crop stand counts in the fall before freeze-up and in the spring after dormancy has broken. Additional data collected will include crop yield, oil content and oil quality. Ralston stripper header project. We are in the fourth year of a project located in an 11.5 inch rainfall zone to increase residue which will increase subsequent soil moisture so that winter canola can be planted no-till into chemical fallow. We harvested the winter wheat and triticale with both a stripper header and conventional header. Winter canola was planted no-till and conventionally on July 28, Bare areas of conventional planted canola were reseeded 10 days later. KCl project. In the past, KCl has been applied to late July-mid August planted winter canola that was ideal size going into the winter. At the Wilke Farm, winter canola was planted September 3, 2013 and KCl was applied at 25 and 100 lbs Cl/A to much smaller canola. Results and Discussion Monitor insects. During the growing season, numerous winter canola fields in Douglas an Okanogan Co. were sprayed for the cabbage seed pod weevil. Cabbage aphid and turnip aphid were present but the Ladybird beetle was also present which preyed on the aphids. Herbicide efficacy study in winter canola. This study is being conducted in a grower s field naturally infested with feral rye (Fig. 1). Average rye density in October was 340 plants/yd 2. Fall treatments of Assure II, Select, and Roundup were applied on October 10. Optimum time of application was delayed because of high winds and/or rain. Feral rye was in the 1 to 2 tiller stage on October 10. Fourteen days 38

39 after application rye control was 15 to 20% with Assure II and Select and approximately 70% with Roundup. Figure 2. Natural infestation of feral rye in winter canola field near Okanogan, WA. Winter canola variety trial for winter survival/cold hardiness. Twelve winter canola varieties were planted at Bridgeport, Ralston, Pomeroy, and Pullman (Table 1). Varieties included Athena, Amanda, WC1, and (University of Idaho); HyClass 115 and 125 (Croplan Genetics); Largo, Falstaff, and Casino (Spectrum Crop Development); and Sumner, Claremore, and Griffin (Kansas State University). The HyClass varieties are resistant to glyphosate and tolerant to sulfonylureas, while the U of I and Spectrum varieties are conventional varieties. Largo (the only B. napus entry) and Griffin are varieties presumably with winter hardiness traits. Sumner is tolerant to sulfonylurea herbicides and Claremore is tolerant to imidazolinone herbicides. At Pullman, planting was very late because of the dry fall. Plants had only 1 to 2 true leaves going into winter, and winter survival was 0%. At Bridgeport harvest data was not collected because of aphids, cabbage seed pod weevil, and deer grazing. Winter survival at Bridgeport (fall and spring plant counts) ranged from 47% (U of I ) to 87% (Largo). At Pomeroy, winter canola yield ranged from 2070 to 3020 lbs/a. Sumner and Amanda yielded highest at 3020 lbs/a followed by Falstaff at 2925 lbs/a. The lowest yield was with Largo at 2070 lbs/a. Winter survival ranged from 62 to 77% at Pomeroy. Winter canola yield at Ralston ranged from 1490 lbs/a (Largo) to >3000 (Amanda, Falstaff, and Griffin). Winter survival ranged from 77 to 99% with six varieties having winter survival 90%. One reason yield of Largo was low was because B. rapa varieties need to be pollinated (personal communication, Jack Brown). Table 1: Yield and winter survival of winter canola in WA in Pomeroy Ralston Bridgeport Variety Yield (lbs/a) Survival (%) Yield (lbs/a) Survival (%) Survival (%) UI WC UI Amanda Athena CP CP Claremore Sumner Griffin Falstaff Casino Largo

40 Increasing residue with the stripper header. The objective of this long-term study is to replace traditional tillage fallow with chemical fallow so that winter canola can be planted at an optimal time and not rely on Mother Nature telling a grower when to plant. Winter wheat in 2013 yielded between 2500 and 3200 lbs/a depending on the previous crop. In contrast, fall triticale yielded >4300 lbs/a. In late July 2013 Sumner winter canola was planted into reduced tillage fallow and CP125 was planted notill in standing stripper-header stubble (Fig. 2) which produced more than 8000 lbs/a biomass the previous crop year. We used an Agpro air seeder with 16 row spacing equipped with a single-edge coulter ahead of the opener to plant no-till. The reduced tillage fallow was planted with a modified JD HZ 14 drill with 28 row spacing. Stand establishment with the no-till drill was excellent (Fig. 3). Figure 2. Planting no-till winter canola into stripper header stubble. Figure 3. Excellent emergence of winter canola in heavy residue. Going into winter plants were large and stand establishment in the reduced tillage fallow (Fig. 4) was 50-60% compared to 95% in the stripper header chemical fallow (Fig. 5). Figure 4. Winter canola stand in reduced tillage fallow, Oct. 19, Figure 5. No-till winter canola in stripper header stubble, Oct. 19,

41 Figure 6. Soil moisture measured in the top 3 inches of the two different residue management treatments. Over the course of the summer, soil moisture in the top three inches of winter wheat stripper header chemical fallow was higher than in the cutter bar reduced tillage fallow (Fig. 6). The stripper header treatment also led to more uniform soil moisture, which helped ensure proper establishment of winter canola seeded into the standing stripper header stubble. The July plantings were successful for all chemical fallow plots, but establishment was poor in the reduced tillage fallow and areas of poor stand in those plots were re seeded on August 26. KCl project. This year winter canola was planted in September so that plants were considerably smaller entering the winter. KCl was applied at either 25 or 100 lbs/a Cl September 26 and plant counts recorded on October 4 to determine winter survival. Plants were considerably smaller going into winter than in previous experiments. Recorded temperatures were -4 F on December 7 and 8. Impact/Potential Outcomes: Since we have initiated winter canola research in the wheat-fallow region of Okanogan and Douglas Co. in 2007, winter canola acreage has increased from 1,000 acres to more than 7,000 acres in 2013 (USDA-FSA data). This does not include acreage planted from seed purchased from dealerships other than Central Washington Grain Growers. Producers in the region have requested monthly meetings (similar to the Direct Seed Breakfasts at Colfax and Lewiston) to discuss no-till and canola production systems. The first one was organized by Dale Whaley after the holidays. Because of the feral rye management and variety studies being conducted and the respective field days, producers are rotating crops, varieties, and herbicides on their farms to reduce/delay weed resistance. The stripper header, high residue, no-till Ralston project is developing cropping systems that allow producers to build residue, transition from tillage fallow to chemical fallow, and no-till winter canola at an optimal time. Several stripper headers have been purchased by growers in the region. Affiliated Projects and Funding: We are cooperating with USDA-ARS at Pendleton, OR to increase residue in the wheat/fallow region. These studies are included in the Pendleton and Pullman USDA-ARS five year plans that are appropriated by Congress. We have received a small grant from the Washington State Canola Commission to help with travel expenses for the winter canola variety studies we have 41

42 established throughout the PNW. We receive a small amount of funding from REACCH to assist with maintaining the study site and collecting data at Ralston, WA. Extension/Outreach: Two members of our team had more than 1400 contacts with growers, agribusiness personnel, administrators, and scientists during the year. Highlights included the WSU oilseed workshop (220); two hosted field days (>110); and organizing a canola symposium at the Farwest Agribusiness Association s annual meeting (>100). Publications: Manuscripts: Submitted to Crop Management Young, F.L., D.K. Whaley, W.L. Pan, R.D. Roe, and J.R. Alldredge. Submitted September Introducing winter canola to the winter wheat-fallow region of the Pacific Northwest. Crop Management. Proposed Future Research/Extension. We plan on hosting several field days throughout the state describing winter canola variety performance at several locations. In addition, we are having a farm tour in Okanogan/Douglas Co. to visit canola growers fields. Lastly we are describing no-till winter canola in standing stripper header stubble. When the above manuscript is accepted for publication we will write an extension bulletin. An extension bulletin (factsheet) is in review on spring canola planting methodology. We are working with growers in the wheat/fallow region to integrate winter canola and chemical fallow into their system to delay/prevent weed resistance. We will continue to conduct variety trials in areas where the U of I does not evaluate varieties. This is in the wheat/fallow area where 60% of the wheat production area is located in the PNW. We evaluate some different varieties, and have located our research at different elevations, snow accumulation, and rainfall zones compared to the U of I trials. Research on residue building and moisture retention with the stripper header will continue so growers can plant winter canola when they want to and not when Mother Nature tells them. One area of research we will initiate this year is monitoring insects in Douglas and Okanogan Co. in northern WA. Canola acreage and insects have increased greatly and we must learn why cabbage seed pod weevils and aphids are such a problem in this region and not in the other areas of the wheat/fallow region. References: Peeper, T. F., J. R. Roberts, D. A. Solie, and A. E. Stone Variation in characteristics and imazamox tolerance of feral rye. Agron. J. 100:

43 Region 2 Title: Dryland and Irrigated Cropping Systems Research with Camelina, Winter Canola, and Safflower PI: William F. Schillinger Collaborating Scientists: Timothy Paulitz, USDA-ARS, Brenton Sharratt, USDA-ARS; Ann Kennedy, USDA- ARS; William Pan, WSU Funding term and duration: This progress report covers research and extension activities conducted in Graduate students: Megan Reese (funded and advised by Dr. Pan) is conducting her MS research project on soil water use of winter canola planted into no-till fallow on several planting dates from a new project initiated by Schillinger in 2013 near Ritzville. Cooperating Growers: Ron Jirava, Ritzville; Hal Johnson, Davenport; Bruce Sauer, Lind; Jeff Schibel, Odessa Technical Support: John Jacobsen, WSU agricultural research technician III, Steve Schofstoll, WSU technical assistant III, Cindy Warriner, WSU technical assistant II. Background: This progress report covers the 2013 results of five oilseed-related research and extension projects conducted in east-central Washington. These projects are three ongoing dryland cropping systems studies (Lind, Ritzville, and Davenport), a new dryland winter canola planting date experiment that was initiated in 2013 near Ritzville, and a residue management study for irrigated canola production near Odessa. The oilseed crops are camelina (low precipitation zone) winter canola (both low and intermediate precipitation zone as well as irrigated) and safflower (low precipitation zone). Acronyms used: C, camelina; NTF, no-till summer fallow; SAF, safflower; SW, spring wheat; TSF, tilled summer fallow; WC, winter canola; WW, winter wheat. OBJECTIVES: Winter Canola (Three studies) Study 1. Determine the optimum planting date to achieve the best plant stands of winter canola (WC) sown into no-till summer fallow (NTF) in the low-precipitation zone and measure the effects of planting date on soil water dynamics and seed yield. Study 2. Determine the benefits of WC grown in a 3-year dryland WC-spring wheat (SW)-no-till fallow rotation compared to the traditional winter wheat (WW)-SW-NTF rotation in the intermediate precipitation zone on soil water dynamics, grain yield of the subsequent SW crop, and soil microbial changes. Study 3. For irrigated winter canola production, conduct field and laboratory research to better understand the physiological mechanism(s) governing winter canola health when planted soon after the harvest of winter wheat, and (ii) to learn how to effectively and profitably produce WC without burning or excessive tillage of wheat stubble. Our hypothesis is that fresh wheat stubble is not phytotoxic to WC and that WC can be successfully produced in a direct-seed system after wheat harvest as a viable alternative to field burning plus heavy tillage. 43

44 Camelina Study 4. Determine the long-term suitability of camelina in the typical WW-summer fallow (SF) cropping zone of eastern Washington. This would allow farmers to plant crops in two out of three years (i.e., increase cropping intensity) instead of only once every other year as currently practiced. Safflower Study 5. Evaluate safflower production potential when grown in a WW-safflower (SAF)-tilled summer fallow (TSF) rotation compared to several cereal-only rotations. METHODS Study 1. This study was initiated in Winter canola (cv. Flagstaff) was planted into NTF on seven planting dates at the Ron Jirava farm near Ritzville, WA. Planting dates were June 10, June 26, July 8, July 22, August 5, August 12, and August 19. The experimental design is a randomized complete block with four replications of each planting date. Canola was seeded at a rate of 5 lbs/acre with a John Deere HZ drill. Individual plots are 8 ft x 100 ft in dimension. Soil water content was measured in each plot at approximate one-week intervals by graduate student Megan Reese. In late October, 50 lbs N and 20 lbs S per acre in liquid Solution 32 formulation was stream jetted on the experiment just prior to a major rain event. Seed yield of WC in the various planting dates will be determined by harvesting with a plot combine. Study 2. This study was initiated in August 2007 on deep, productive soils at the Hal Johnson farm east of Davenport, WA. Annual precipitation at the site averages 18 inches. We are comparing a WC-SW- NTF rotation with the more traditional WW-SW-NTF system. All crops are direct seeded with a Kile hoeopener drill. The experimental design is a randomized complete block with six replications. Individual plot size is 16 ft x 100 ft. Fertilizer application rate is based on soil test results. In addition to WC, WW, and SW grain yield (determined using a plot combine), we are measuring soil water content in all plots (i) just after harvest in August, (ii) in early April, and (iii) in NTF in August. Ponded water infiltration is measured using 2-ft-diameter infiltration rings in standing WC and WW stubble from the previous harvest during some winters when soils are partially or completely frozen. Plant diseases and microbial attributes are assessed by Tim Paulitz and Ann Kennedy, respectively. Study 3. This experiment was initiated in Four winter wheat stubble management treatments were established in August and September 2012 at the Jeff Schibel farm SW of Odessa, WA. The experiment is embedded in a circle of irrigated winter canola belonging to Mr. Schibel. Irrigated WW stubble in the plot area was burned in treatments I and III (below) on August 20 and irrigation water immediately applied to promote germination of volunteer wheat. Glyphosate was applied to the entire plot at a rate of 24 oz/acre on September 4. Land was prepared as required by protocols for each treatment (i.e., straw chopping, disking, moldboard plowing; see list of treatments below) on September 4-6. Winter canola was planted and fertilized in one pass on September 7 using a Kile no-till hoe drill. Assure II herbicide for grass weed control was applied on October 6. All field equipment used in establishment of the experiment was transported to the site from the WSU Dryland Research Station. Treatments established at the Schibel site in 2012 were: (i) stubble burned + disked, (ii) stubble chopped + moldboard plowed, (iii) stubble burned, then direct seeded and, (iv) direct seeding into standing and undisturbed stubble. Experimental design is a randomized complete block with four replications of each treatment for a total of 16 plots. Individual treatment plot widths range from 8-to 10-ft depending on the tillage implement (if any) used. All plots are 100 ft long. Application of 44

45 irrigation water, which totals about 15 inches for the crop year, is managed by Mr. Schibel. Winter canola was harvested with a plot combine on July 30, A new (fifth) treatment was added to the experiment in In the new treatment we broadcast WC into the standing (i.e., not yet harvested) wheat crop. Five inches of irrigation water is then applied to germinate the WC. Volunteer wheat is controlled with an application of Assure II grass herbicide in October. Study 4. We are currently in year six of a 9-year-long cropping systems experiment to evaluate camelina (C) produced in a 3-year WW-C-TSF rotation compared to the 2-year WW-TSF rotation practiced throughout the low-precipitation zone. The experiment is located at the WSU Dryland Research Station near Lind. Experimental design is a randomized complete block with four replicates. There are 20 plots, each 250 ft x 30 ft in size. Camelina is direct drilled + fertilized into standing WW stubble during late February or early March. Winter wheat is planted into TSF in late August. Soil water content to a depth of six feet is measured in all 20 plots after C and WW harvest in July and again in March, and from the eight TSF plots in late August just before planting WW. Weed species in C and WW are identified, counted, and collected just before grain harvest within a 6 ft x 6 ft sample frame randomly placed in each plot. Above ground dry biomass of each weed species is determined after placing samples in a low-humidity greenhouse for 30 days. Surface residue remaining after planting WW into TF is measured in both rotations June using 26 the line-point June method. 10 Study 5. Since 2010, the production potential for safflower (SAF) is being determined at the long-term dryland cropping systems experiment on the Ron Jirava farm located west of Ritzville, WA. Safflower is grown in a 3-year WW-SAF-TSF rotation and is compared to WW-SW-TSF and WW-TSF rotations. Each phase of all rotations is present each year and there are four replicates. Size of individual plots is 30 ft x 500 ft. Soil water is measured in all plots after grain harvest, in mid-april, and from TSF in early September. Treflan, a soil-residual herbicide, is applied in March or April to be rain incorporated into plots that will be sown to SAF. Safflower is direct sown at a rate of 40 lbs/acre + fertilized into standing and undisturbed WW stubble in late April or early May. Grain yield is determined with a commercialsized combine and a weigh wagon. RESULTS, DISCUSSION, AND IMPACT Winter Canola Study 1: Winter canola planting date. More than two inches of rain fell at the Jirava Ritzville site in June Air temperatures remained fairly cool following the first (June 10) WW planting and perfect plant stand establishment was achieved (Photo 1). Following the June 26 planting, WC emerged during several days of 100+ degree F air temperatures. Newly-emerged cotyledon leafs (i.e., seed leafs) showed no stress and full and successful stands were achieved (Photo 2, Photo 1). The key for the June 26 planting was having excellent seed-zone moisture that allowed emergence and adequate water for evapotranspiration needs of newlyemerged WC seedlings. To the PI s knowledge, this is the first documentation of successful June 26 June 10 Photo taken 7/29/13 Photo 1. Dryland winter canola in the planting date experiment near Ritzville, WA. Winter canola was direct seeded into NTF with a John Deere HZ drill with 16-inch row spacing. 45

46 emergence and stand establishment of dryland WC under such extreme heat conditions. The WC planting on July 8 failed to emerge due to a crusting rain that fell soon after planting. Excellent emergence was achieved from the July 22 planting date, but cotyledon leafs were burned off due to high air temperatures and all plants died. In this case, the seed zone was not wet enough to sustain the evapotranspiration requirements of the newlyemerged seedlings. Photo taken 7/2/2013 Photo 2. Newly emerged winter canola (WC) seedlings from the June 26 planting date. Heavy rains just before planting allowed the seedlings to emerge and survive several 100+ ⁰ F air temperatures that occurred for several days following planting. Successful WC stands were achieved from the August 5 planting following a 0.88-inch rain that occurred on August 2. A partial stand was achieved from the WC planting on August 12. The final WC planting on August 19 failed to emerge as seed was placed about two inches deep with marginal seed zone moisture. Soil water use for the three successful stands (planted on June 10, June 26, and August 5) compared to the check (i.e., unplanted no-till fallow) are shown in Figure 1. Soil water measurements were obtained on September 16. June-planted WC had used more than three inches more soil water than the successful August 5 planting. Also, the August 5 planting had used only 1.1 inches more soil water compared to the baseline unplanted no-till Fig. 1. Water content in the six-foot soil profile measured on September 16, 2013 as affected by winter canola planted on three different dates near Ritzville, WA. Values in parenthesis after each planting date represent water (inches) remaining in the profile. Baseline refers to fallow left unplanted. Winter canola was planted into no-till summer fallow. fallow (Fig. 1). Winter canola stands in the experiment on October 17 are shown in Photo 3. Photo 3. Overview of the dryland winter canola planting date experiment near Ritzville, WA. 46

47 Study 2: Winter canola rotation benefit. Outstanding yields of WC and WW were again achieved in 2013 in this experiment located on the Hal Johnson farm east of Davenport. Winter canola seed yield averaged 3687 lbs/acre and WW 105 bushels/acre. Thus, even though the price of WC was lower than that received by farmers in 2012, WC competed quite favorably with WW for gross economic returns in 2013 also. Planting WC into no-till fallow during the first week of August is a good fit at this location as WC seed yields have improved markedly during the last three crop years compared to the first three years of this study (Fig. 2). Seed-zone moisture in no-till fallow is always adequate at this site and stand establishment has not been a problem. Figure 3. Six years of yield and soil water data from the winter canola rotation benefit study. Top: Winter wheat and winter canola grain yields and water remaining in the six-foot soil profile following harvest of these crops from 2008 to 2013 and the 6-year average. Bottom: Soil water in the six-foot soil profile in April prior to planting spring wheat and spring wheat grain yields as affected by previous crop (either WW or WC) from 2009 to 2013 and the 5-year average. Within-year soil water values with different letters indicate significant differences at the 5% probability level. Letters above spring wheat grain yield bars indicate significant differences at the 5% probability level. ns = no significant differences. In the 2013 crop year, spring wheat grain yield following WC was 77 bu/acre compared to 84 bu/acre following WW, despite the fact that there was 0.6 inches more water in the WC stubble versus WW stubble at time of SW planting in April (Fig. 2). A similar trend occurred in the 2012 crop year where spring wheat grain yield was 41 versus 57 bu/acre follow WC and WW, respectively and where WC stubble in the spring (prior to planting SW) had 1.4 inches more water than WW stubble. We feel the reason for these yield differences is volunteer WC in the SW crop. Although glyphosate herbicide is applied prior to planting SW and a broadleaf herbicide is applied in the growing SW crop, volunteer WC was present in SW in both 2012 and The broadleaf herbicide extremely stunted, but did not completely kill, the volunteer WC. There were essentially no other weeds in the SW. The 5-year 47

48 average SW grain yield from this experiment is 58 and 63 bu/acre following WC and WW, respectively, with no statistically significant differences. We feel a major take-home lesson learned these last two years is for farmers to make sure to completely control WC volunteer. Study 3: Irrigated winter canola. Four winter wheat stubble management treatments were established in late August early September 2012 just prior to planting winter canola. The experiment was embedded in a circle of irrigated winter canola. The treatments were: (i) Stubble burned + disked; (ii) Photo taken 5/16/2013 Photo 4. Direct seeding irrigated winter canola into newly-harvested winter wheat stubble. A no-till hoeopener drill with 12-inch row spacing and openers staggered on three ranks was used to plant all residue management treatments in the experiment. Photo 5. Cooperator Jeff Schibel demonstrates the shorter height of irrigated winter canola (WC) direct seeded into standing and undisturbed winter wheat (WW) stubble compared to a treatment where the WW stubble had been burned and the soil then heavily tilled prior to WC planting. Winter canola plants in all residue management treatments were the same height by the end of May. stubble burned, then direct seeded; (iii) stubble chopped + moldboard plowed; and (iv) direct seeding into standing and undisturbed stubble (Photos 4 and 5). Fertilizer rate was 120 lbs N, 40 lbs P, and 40 lbs S per acre applied in the fall with an additional 50 lbs of N topdressed in the spring. Application of irrigation water, which totals 15 inches for the crop year, is managed by Mr. Schibel as part of his normal irrigation schedule for the winter canola circle. Figure 4. Irrigated winter canola seed yields in 2013 at the Jeff Schibel farm near Odessa, WA with four different methods of managing newly-harvested winter wheat stubble just to planting winter canola. Seed yields ranged from 3014 to 3276 lbs/acre with no statistically significant (P = 0.40) differences among the residue management treatments. A twilight tour at the experiment site was held on May 30, 2013 with 40 people attending. A follow on press article about the tour was published in the Odessa Record weekly newspaper. No root or foliar diseases were detected in any of the treatments in the 2013 crop year or in the fall of the 2014 crop year. Winter 48

49 canola seed yields in 2013 ranged from 3014 to 3276 lbs/acre with no statistical differences (P=0.40) among treatments (Photo 4, Fig. 3). A new (fifth) treatment was added to the experiment beginning in the 2014 crop year where winter canola seed is broadcast into the standing wheat crop (i.e., before wheat harvest) (Photo 6). Winter canola stands in all five treatments for the 2014 crop year are excellent. At the time of this progress report was written (January 2014), there is some concern that the low air temperatures likely damaged WC in the region. The low temperature at the Schibel farm was -3 degrees F. We are encouraged by the results of the experiment to date, but the two remaining years of research need to be conducted before we can provide conclusive results. Study 4: Camelina Cropping Systems Experiment at Lind: The 2013 crop year was not a good year for camelina (C) in most locations in eastern Washington. The winter was much drier than normal. Camelina (cv. Calena) was direct seeded into standing WW stubble at a rate of 5 lbs/acre with a hoe-type no-till drill on March 4, Plant stand establishment was spotty and unacceptable because of the dry surface soil conditions and lack of rain after planting. Camelina was replanted on April 8 after a rain storm. Plant stand establishment was excellent from this planting, but all plants were killed by subfreezing temperatures while still in the cotyledon leaf stage. By that time (April 24), it was too late for replanting, thus the camelina plots were left fallow. The PI has been conducting research on camelina at Lind for seven years and 2013 was the first year when good or excellent camelina stands were not achieved. Figure 5. Camelina and winter wheat yields in the long-term camelina cropping systems study at the WSU Dryland Research Station near Lind, WA. The two cropping systems are winter wheat-camelina-tilled summer fallow and winter wheat-tilled summer fallow. ns = no significant difference at the 5% probability level. Photo 6. A thick stand of winter canola was achieved with broadcasting seed into standing winter wheat crop before wheat harvest. Five inches of irrigation water was applied following wheat harvest. This is a new treatment for the 2014 crop year in the residue management, irrigated WC experiment. Volunteer wheat was controlled with an application of Assure II grass weed herbicide. Camelina yields since 2009 in this experiment are shown in Figure 4. The 5- year average yield (not counting 2013) is 489 lbs/acre. Winter wheat grain yields have generally been slightly, but not significantly, higher in the 2-year WW-TSF rotation compared to the 3-year WW-C-TSF rotation (Fig. 4). The 5-year average WW grain yield is 34 bu/acre with WW-C-TSF and 36 bu/acre with WW-TSF. 49

50 Averaged over the five years, water content in TSF at the time of WW planting in late August is 0.6 inches greater (P < 0.001) in the 2-year compared the 3-year rotation (Table 1). There are no differences in soil water content after the time of harvest of WW and camelina nor are there differences in overwinter water gain on WW versus camelina stubble (Table 1). The differences in water loss between the two fallow rotations occur during the summer (P < 0.001, Table 1). The average of 0.6 inches more water in the 2-year rotation would account for the two bu/acre average WW grain yield increase in the 2-year rotation. Why is greater water loss occurring during the summer in the 3-year rotation when both fallow systems are treated the same (i.e., plots are always undercut, rodweeded, and planted to WW at the same time)? The reason is likely that greater surface residue in the 2-year rotation provides better shading. Table 1. Soil water content at the beginning (after harvest), early spring, and end of fallow (before planting) and associated gain or loss of water and precipitation storage efficiency (PSE = gain in soil water/precipitation) in the 6-ft soil profile in summer fallow in a 2-year winter wheat-summer fallow rotation versus a 3-year winter wheat-camelina-summer fallow rotation. The top portion of the table shows water content during the fallow cycle and the bottom portion of the table shows fallow water content for the 5-year average. ns = no significant differences. Timing in fallow period Beginning (late Aug.) Spring (mid Mar.) Over-winter Gain End (late Aug.) Mar. to Aug. water Soil water content (inches) A Fallow treatment After winter wheat (2-yr rotation) After camelina (3-yr rotation) P-value ns ns Ns 0.03 ns 0.02 B. 5-year average Fallow treatment After winter wheat (2-yr rotation) After camelina (3-yr rotation) P-value ns ns Ns < < PSE (%) The PI completed a consultancy assignment in 2013 for a British company that is interested in camelina for what they term unique oil characteristics. The British company is interested in what it will take to encourage Inland Pacific Northwest farmers to produce camelina on 100,000 or more acres per year. A summary of the PI s recommendations (Schillinger, 2013) was published in the 2013 WSU Field Day Abstracts. 50

51 Study 5: Safflower cropping systems. Since 2010, safflower (SAF) has been included in the long-term cropping systems on the Ron Jirava farm near Ritzville where it is grown in a 3-year WW-SAF-TSF Photo 7. Excellent plant stands of safflower were achieved in Planting was delayed until April 24 to allow soil warming. Stands of safflower are shown on June 17 and July 2 above. rotation. Planting of SAF was delayed until April 24 in 2013 (i.e., until soil temperature warmed) and excellent plant stands were achieved (Photo 7). Safflower was harvested on September 26 and seed yield was a disappointing 550 lbs/acre. Safflower seed yields through the years have ranged from 125 to 1130 lbs/acre and crop-year precipitation appears to have little to do with this wide range (Fig. 5). Soil water use by SAF is greater than any other crop grown in the Jirava cropping systems experiment (data not shown). Winter wheat grain yields in the WW-SAF-TSF rotation are compared to those in the WW-SW-TSF and WW-TSF rotations. WW grain yield in 2013 was 64, 81, and 63 bu/acre in the WW-SAF-TSF, WW-SW- TSF, and WW-TSF rotations, respectively (Fig. 6). Figure 7. Safflower seed yields and crop-year precipitation at the Jirava long-term cropping systems study near Ritzville, WA. Safflower is grown in a 3-year winter wheat-safflowertilled summer rotation. Figure 6. Winter wheat grain yield in three cropping systems at the Jirava cropping systems study near Ritzville. Although the safflower rotation has been in place since 2010, the rotation effects on winter wheat yield could not be reported until beginning in

52 Affiliated Projects and Funding: Schillinger and Paulitz are Co-PIs on a 3-year grant from the Washington Department of Ecology for a project titled Management of fresh wheat residue for irrigated winter canola production. Schillinger has received $12,500 annually from the REACCH Project for the past several years for support of the large-scale (i.e., 20 acre) Jirava cropping systems experiment near Ritzville that is now in its 18 th year. Oilseed-related publications in 2013 (and in press for 2014) Referred Journal Articles Guy, S.O., D.J. Wysocki, W.F. Schillinger, T.G. Chastain, R.S. Karow, K. Garland-Campbell, and I.C. Burke Camelina: Adaptation and performance of genotypes. Field Crops Research 155: Schillinger, W.F., and T.C. Paulitz Natural suppression of Rhizoctonia bare patch in a long-term no-till cropping systems experiment. Plant Disease (in press). Sharratt, B.S., and W.F. Schillinger Windblown dust potential from oilseed cropping systems in the Pacific Northwest United States. Agronomy Journal (in press). Wysocki, D.J., T.G. Chastain, W.F. Schillinger, S.O. Guy, and R.S. Karow Camelina: Seed yield response to applied nitrogen and sulfur. Field Crops Research 145: Extension Bulletins Schillinger, W.F., D.J. Wysocki, T.G. Chastain, S.O. Guy, and R.S. Karow Camelina: Planting date and method effects on stand establishment and seed yield. WSU, OSU, UI Extension Manual (accepted). Conference Proceedings Papers Sharratt, B.S., and W.F. Schillinger Windblown dust potential from oilseed cropping systems in the Pacific Northwest United States. In A. El-Beltagy, M.C. Saxena, and T. Wang (eds.) Global Climate Change and its Impact on Food and Energy Security in the Drylands. Proc. 11 th International Conference on Development of Drylands. Beijing, China. Abstracts from Professional Meetings Schillinger, W.F., T.C. Paulitz, B.S. Sharratt, and W.L. Pan Oilseed crops for biofuel production in wheat-based cropping systems in the Pacific Northwest, USA. International Conference on Agricultural Ecosystems, 15-18, July, Athens, Greece. Sharratt, B.S., and W.F. Schillinger Wind erosion potential from oilseed cropping systems in the US Pacific Northwest. American Society of Agronomy annual meeting, 3-6 Nov., Tampa, FL. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA Abstracts. Washington State University Field Day Abstracts Schillinger, W.F Camelina: What will it take to make this crop attractive to Pacific Northwest growers? p In 2013 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 13-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. Schillinger, W., H. Johnson, J. Jacobsen, S. Schofstoll, A. Kennedy, and T. Paulitz Winter canola rotation benefit experiment in the intermediate precipitation zone. p In 2013 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 13-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. Schillinger, W., T. Paulitz, J. Schibel, K. Schroeder, J. Jacobsen, and S. Schofstoll Management of fresh wheat residue for irrigated winter canola production. p. 55. In 2013 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 13-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. 52

53 Schillinger, W., R. Jirava, J. Jacobsen, and S. Schofstoll Safflower cropping systems experiment in the low-precipitation zone. p. 63. In 2013 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 13-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. Schillinger, W.F., J.A. Jacobsen, S.E. Schofstoll, B.S. Sharratt, and B.E. Sauer Long-term camelina cropping systems experiment at Lind. p In 2013 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 13-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. Sharratt, B.S., and W.F. Schillinger Wind erosion potential from oilseed cropping systems. p In 2013 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 13-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. Field Tours A twilight tour of the irrigated winter canola residue management experiment at the Jeff Schibel farm near Odessa (40 attended) was held on May 30, A field tour of the Jirava cropping systems experiment (which includes the safflower crop rotation study) was presented to 35 farmers and scientists on June 5, Proposed Future Research/Extension New winter canola cropping systems study. In addition to continuation of the five ongoing oilseedsrelated experiments, the PI proposes to initiate in 2014 a new winter canola cropping systems research project on the Ron Jirava farm near Ritzville. The new cropping system to be tested is a 4-year winter canola-ntf-winter triticale-ntf rotation. The WC planting will likely take place in June due to the high likelihood of successful WC stand establishment when air temperatures are still relatively cool and the surface soil still retains adequate moisture. The ongoing WC planting date experiment at this site will help to further define the optimum planting date. Winter triticale will be included in the rotation because research by Schillinger et al. (2012) has shown that late planted (mid-october or later) winter triticale produces equivalent grain biomass as early planted (early September) winter wheat. This is of crucial importance because with NTF there is rarely adequate seed-zone moisture for early establishment of WW. If farmers have to wait until the onset of fall rains, which typically begin no earlier than mid-october or later, their WW grain yields will be reduced by an average of 39% compared to early-planted WW (Higginbotham et al., 2013). The grain yield difference between early versus late planted winter triticale is much less than for WW (Schillinger et al., 2012). Thus, with the use of NTF, the proposed 4-year rotation of WC-NTF-winter triticale-ntf represents a promising possibility for a stable, sustainable, profitable, and ecologically-friendly crop rotation for the low-precipitation zone. The new project will cover more than four acres. The 4-year WC-NTF-winter triticale-nt rotation will be compared to the 2-year WW-TSF rotation. Experimental design will be a randomized complete block with four replications. All segments of both rotations will be present every year (total of 24 plots). Individual plot size will be 30 ft x 250 ft and commercial-size equipment will be used. References Higginbotham, R.W., S.S. Jones, and A.H. Carter. Wheat cultivar performance and stability between no-till and conventional tillage systems in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Sustainability 5:

54 Schillinger, W.F Camelina: What will it take to make this crop attractive to Pacific Northwest growers? p In 2013 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 13-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. Schillinger, B., R. Jirava, H. Nelson, J. Jacobsen, and S. Schofstoll Winter triticale produces high grain and straw yields from late planting in Washington s dryland region. In 2012 Dryland Field Day Abstracts: Highlights of Research Progress. Dept. of Crop and Soil Sciences Tech. Report 12-1, WSU, Pullman, WA. 54

55 REGION 3 Central WA irrigated Title: Double-Cropping Dual Purpose Irrigated Biennial Canola with Green Pea PIs: Kefyalew Girma Desta, Hal Collins and Bill Pan CoPIs: Steve Fransen, Steven Norberg, and Don Llewellyn Funding term and duration: Graduate students: None Technical Support: Allyson Leonhard Background: Of the 1.24 million irrigated acres in the inland Pacific Northwest (PNW), about 16% remains in fallow after the main crop has been harvested. Very few acres are dedicated to oilseed crops in the region. In fact, the U.S., including Washington State, meets its canola oil and meal demands through imports from abroad, primarily from Canada (Ash, 2011). Growers are reluctant to convert their land for sole biofuel feedstock canola due to the low yield of canola compared with other crops such as wheat, which is commonly grown in the region. However, when planted as a biodiesel crop, canola can play a significant role in curbing the import of petroleum-based fuel and can contribute to a reduction in CO 2 emissions. The results of recent research conducted in the central PNW have suggested that with deficit irrigation, canola seed yield can reach 3500 lbs/a (Davenport et al., 2011). Canola can reduce the total cost of irrigation water and the amount of labor needed to raise the crop, both of which can then be expended on other crops (Tesfamariam et al., 2010). A number of factors result in the double-cropping system having strategic agricultural benefits. In this region, there is significant dairy and beef cattle production, with a demand for locally grown animal feed. The sandy soils are susceptible to nitrate leaching and wind erosion if there is inadequate crop cover over the winter and spring periods when traditional summer crops are not grown. Rotational designs are needed to address market and environmental issues (Pullins and Myers, 1998). In addition, a well-designed double-cropping system can result in significant savings from intensive use of the land and fertilizer carryover from previous crops (Wesley, 1999; Heggenstaller et al., 2008). Green pea can contribute a significant amount of N to the succeeding crop because the fresh residue quickly decomposes to provide the early season N demands of the succeeding crop (Jans- Hammermeistert et al., 1994). This is of particular interest for canola because the N needs during the early growing period are high (Smith et al., 2010). The crop can also generate additional in-season income for growers. The average annual value of green pea between 1995 and 2010 was $21 million in Washington State (USDA/NASS, 2011), suggesting that there is a reasonable market for the crop. A green pea-canola-teff/buckwheat cropping system can provide new opportunities for growers in the region through i) providing additional annual farm income with the production of green pea and canola 55

56 forage, ii) protecting the soil from wind erosion through vulnerable periods (late summer through spring) with crop coverage, iii) producing canola seed in the subsequent year for oil (biofuel or food) and high-protein meal (animal feed), and (iv) preventing the decline of soil health while enhancing soil and water quality. Objectives: The overall objective of this project is to develop dual-purpose biennial canola as a viable rotational crop in the irrigated arid Columbia Basin. Specific objectives are: 1. Quantify the seasonal nitrogen recovery of biennial canola 2. Quantify the N contribution from green pea to the succeeding canola crop 3. Assess potential soil and water quality impacts of the double-crop system 4. Assess forage and feed quality of biennial canola 5. Assess the feasibility and estimate the overall profitability of the double-crop dual purpose biennial canola 6. Conduct outreach activities on double crop dual purpose canola to increase awareness of growers and industry Methods (Previous year and this year of the biennial canola stand): We began the first cycle (2012/13) of the study in April 2012, at the Paterson USDA-ARS research site located near Paterson, WA, with the planting of peas. The second cycle of the study is currently in progress, and the third will begin with the planting of peas in April The soil at Paterson is Quincy loamy sand (mixed, mesic Xeric Torripsamments) with 80% sand, 4% clay, and 4 inches of available water storage capacity. Surface (0-12 inch) soil samples from the study area were collected before planting to establish the initial soil chemical properties of the trial site. The experiment was conducted in a split-plot design with 4 replications. The main plots were biennial canola purposes (dual or single). The dual-purpose biennial canola treatment was cut for forage in fall, allowed to regrow, and harvested for seed the following year. The single-purpose biennial canola was grown only for seed. Subplots were 3 x 3 factorial combinations of N (0, 100, and 200 lb//a) and S (0, 30 and 60 lb/a) fertilizer rates in a randomized complete block design. The main plots were 180 ft wide by 50 ft long, whereas subplots measured 20 ft wide by 50 ft long. Green pea cultivar Prevail was planted at 240 lbs/a seeding rate on April 26, 2012, and harvested on June 30, 2012 for total biomass and fresh pea seed yield from an area of 9 ft 2. The canola cultivar Griffin was planted using a Brillion planter at a seeding rate of 6.8 lbs/a pure live seed following pea residue incorporation and ground work. The strips intended for forage were harvested using a John Deere F935 (John Deere, Moline, IL) at a height of 4 inches above the crown at the rosette (28-29 or 8 to 9 leaf, BBCH scale) stage. Both fresh and dried biomass/forage yields were estimated from a 3 ft x 50 ft area in each subplot. Wet weight of forage was recorded on-site and subsamples were withdrawn for determination of moisture content and feed quality. Total biennial canola forage N content, crude protein, acid detergent fiber (ADF), and total digestible nutrients (TDN) were determined using NIRS 5000/6500 Feed and Forage Analyzer (Eden Prairie, MN). 56

57 Biennial canola was allowed to grow and remain in situ over the winter. After the winter, live plants were counted from a 9 ft 2 area from all plots to document the winter survival of the biennial canola crop. Additionally, we used a 1 9 scale to estimate winter hardiness of the dual- and single-purpose plots. On June 29, 2013, the biennial canola was harvested with a Hagie combine (Hagie Manufacturing Company, Clarion, IA) from a 5 ft wide by 50 ft long area. Seed yield of biennial canola was determined, and sub-samples were collected for oil content analysis. Post-harvest soil samples were collected from each subplot to a depth of 36 inches using Kauffman s hydraulic soil sampler (Albany, OR). Samples were then sectioned into depth increments of 12 inches. Soil NH 4 -N and NO 3 -N were extracted and quantified at Brookside Lab Inc. (New Bremen, OH) using established methods. To document nitrate leaching, we installed lysimeters in three replicates using ceramic end vacuum suction lysimeters to 4 ft depth following biennial canola planting in selected plots. We were unable, however, to capture soil water. We adjusted the depth to 2 ft after the winter, although we captured water samples only from a few plots. All collected data were subjected to statistical analysis using the MIXED procedure in SAS 9.3 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Additionally, orthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to assess trend in biennial canola yields and forage quality parameters in response to increases in N and S fertilizer rates. Preliminary Results Yields The first cycle of this double cropped biennial canola cropping sequence was completed in July 2013, and the second cycle is currently underway. Average green pea (shelled) yield was 5.6 ton/a in 2012 and 3.1 ton/a in 2013 (Fig. 1), uniform across replicates. Pea stand was poor in Average biennial canola seedling population was 7.3 ft -2 ± 0.8 ft -2 and 5.5 m -2 ± 1.1 ft -2 in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This represents a 24.7% smaller population in 2013 compared with the 2012 biennial canola emergence season. The seedling distribution was not statistically different (p> 0.05) for N, S, and N*S interactions. Figure 1. Green Pea yield (ton/ha) averaged over 36 plots at Paterson, WA in 2012 and

58 Seed yield, lb/a Forage yield, lb/a Forage yield, lb/a (a) Effect of N rate on biennial canola forage yield N rate lb/a 2245 Dual Linear *** Sole (b) Effect of S rate on biennial canola forage yield S rate, lb/a Figure 2. Effect of N rate (a) and S rate (b) on biennial canola forage yield in 2012 and Sulfur rate did not have a significant effect on forage yield at P<0.05. Sixteen-percent moisture adjusted biennial canola dry matter yield from growth stage was 1949 and 1147 lb/a in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Poor establishment reduced the forage yield in In 2012, there were no significant differences in forage yield between plots that received N and the check (Fig. 2a). No trend was observed for forage yield with an increase in N rates. The lack of difference to applied N or S compared to the check indicated that N mineralized from pea residue was presumably adequate for vegetative growth at least until the forage harvest date. Unlike 2012, in 2013, biennial canola forage yield increased with an increase in N rate (Fig. 2a). This is not surprising, considering the poor pea stand we had before the biennial canola crop. The inorganic N in the soil prior to pea planting Figure 3. Seed yield of biennial canola planted in August 2012 and harvested in June 2013 of dual- and single-purpose canola. was approximately 2 lb/a in the first 6 inches of the soil, much lower than what was documented before biennial canola planting (22 lb/a). In both years, no response to S fertilizer was observed for biennial canola forage (Fig 2b). In 2012/13, biennial canola seed yield was 2245 and 2392 lb/a for the dual- and single-purpose biennial canola, respectively (Fig. 3). Yield was not significantly different, suggesting the removal of biennial canola forage in the fall for hay might not reduce the seed yield. Both N (Fig. 4) and S had no significant effect on biennial canola seed yield at p<0.05 (data not shown). This could be due to the same reason indicated above for forage yield; i.e., N contribution from pea possibly reduced the yield penalty in the check plot and did not dramatically change due to high rates of N. When completed, the analysis of the 15 N enriched pea residue and 15 N labelled urea fertilizer may help to explain if, indeed, pea residue contributed significant N to ensuing biennial canola. Detailed N balance analysis is underway. Winter damage 58

59 Seed yield, lb/a N rate, lb/a Figure 4. Response of seed yield of biennial canola to N rates. Biennial canola was planted in August 2012 and harvested in June Linear trend was not significant at p<0.05. In 2012, we did not find significant winter damage between the dual- and single-purpose biennial canola systems (data not shown). Winter survival tended to be high, due to good fall plant regrowth in the case of the dual-purpose system. Additionally, no extreme temperatures were recorded during the winter of 2012/13. Return In 2012/13, the green pea dual-purpose biennial canola system may give growers up to $800/A in marginal profit. This suggests that the crop has enormous potential to fit into the existing cropping system, with benefits to growers and the agroindustry. Potential Impact/Potential Outcomes: 1. Increase the N contribution of green pea to succeeding biennial canola by the end of the project. The goal is to reduce N fertilizer cost by using green pea and organic amendments. Reduce N fertilizer applied by 50 lb/a from the recommended rate of 200 lb N/A applied to a biennial canola crop to 150 lb/a. With current average price of $0.61/lb of actual N, the saving is $30.50/A. This translates to $3.05 million per cropping cycle saving in nitrogen fertilizer if 100,000 acres are dedicated to double-cropped dual-purpose biennial canola. This assumes no added cost of using better N management practices than the conventional methods. 2. Increase income by adding green pea into biennial canola based double-crop system. It is expected that green pea harvest adds about 5 ton/a of green pea yield. This translates to $65/A net profit after all costs are subtracted ($100/ton revenue and $87/ton total cost). Assuming an area of 100,000 acres conversion to the dual-purpose biennial canola system, the net profit is $6.5 million. 3. Increase income by adding biennial canola as forage/hay under double-crop. It is expected that the project will add additional revenue to adopting farmers. For a producer, harvesting biennial canola hay adds $60/A gross margin after accounting variable costs. Assuming an area of 100,000 acres, conversion to the dual-purpose biennial canola system will result in $6.0 million in gross margin to farmers. The biennial canola hay/silage can be blended with animal ration to improve quality and add value to the ration. Canola hay/silage has high protein level. 4. Assess the effect of the cropping systems on water quality. The system will also reduce leaching of nitrogen and improve soil health thereby enhancing the sustainability and productivity of agricultural land. It is expected to reduce nitrate leaching by 60% compared with a conventional system. Presentations and Publications: 1. Girma (Desta), Kefyalew, Harold P. Collins, Romulus O. Okwany, and William L. Pan Doublecropping irrigated biodiesel biennial canola with green pea. ASA, CSSA & SSSA International Annual Meetings, Nov. 3-6, 2013, Tampa, FL. [Abstract and presentation] 2. Desta (Girma) Kefyalew, Harold Collins, William Pan, Romulus O. Okwany, R. Troy Peters and Steve Fransen Soil and water quality, and productivity of double-cropped biennial canola with green pea. Golden Opportunities 2013 WSU Oilseed Production and Marketing Conference, Jan 22-23, 2013, Kennewick, WA. [Abstract and presentation] 59

60 Proposed Future Research/Extension for 2014/2015: We will continue to conduct biennial canola forage quality analysis, monitor current biennial canola plots, start N recovery and balance analysis, and collect water from lysimeters to track NO 3 from a depth of 2-4 ft. In March, we will assess winter damage in the dual- and single-purpose biennial canola stand. We will continue data collection throughout the biennial canola growing season. Simultaneously, we are also documenting seasonal N accumulation by biennial canola. A new set of study will be initiated by planting biennial canola in spring Different from the previous year, a fallow component will be included to generate baseline information to compare the green pea contribution to subsequent biennial canola. The number of replications will be reduced to three to better manage the study. We will begin developing manuscripts for extension and referred journal publications. References: Ash, M Oil crops outlook : a report from the Economic Research Service, OCS-111. USDA/ERS. [electronic resource] Davenport, J., B. Stevens, A. Hang, and T. Peters Irrigated canola research. Pp In: K.E. Sowers and W.L. Pan, eds. Biofuels Cropping System Project 2010 Progress Report. Washington State University, Pullman, WA. Heggenstaller, A.H., R.P. Anex, M. Liebman, D.N. Sundberg, and L.R. Gibson Productivity and nutrient dynamics in bioenergy double-cropping systems. Agron. J. 100(6): Jans-Hammermeistert, D. C., W. B. McGilll, and T. L. Jensen Dynamics of 15 N in two soil-plant systems following incorporation of 10% bloom and full bloom field pea. Can. J. Soil Sci. 74: Pullins, E.E., and R.L. Myers Agronomic and economic performance of wheat and canola-based double-crop systems. Am. J. Altern. Agric. 13(3): Smith, E.G., B.M. Upadhyay, M.L. Favret, and R.E. Karamanos Fertilizer response for hybrid and open-pollinated canola and economic optimal nutrient levels. Can. J. Plant Sci. 90(3): Tesfamariam, E H., J.G. Annandale, and J.M. Steyn Water stress effects on winter canola growth and yield. Agron. J. 102(2): USDA/NASS Washington State historic data-vegetables- green pea. USDA/NASS Washington Field Office, Olympia, WA. Wesley, R. A Double cropping wheat and soybeans. Pages In: Soybean Production in the Midsouth. L. G. Heatherly and H. F. Hodges, eds. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Tables/Graphs: Locations of biennial canola experiments at Paterson USDA/ARS Research Farm. 60

61 Biennial canola forage cutting at growth stage 19 (nine leaves unfolded, BBCH system), 49 days after planting on Oct 10, 2012 at Paterson, WA. Jason Mieirs harvesting biennial canola using Hagie combine on July 2, 2013, Paterson, WA. Romulus Okwany (PhD) collecting water samples from lysimeters on April 8, 2013, Paterson, WA. 61

62 Cross-Cutting CROSS-CUTTING PROJECTS Title: Biofuel Cropping Systems: Economic Returns to Canola Rotations in Eastern Washington PI: Dr. Vicki A. McCracken Funding term and duration: Technical support: Jenny R. Connolly Background: Canola growers have observed rotational benefits from growing canola including increased yield in subsequent wheat crops, decreased weed pressure, and improved soil quality (Painter et al., 2013). These benefits accrue in crops following canola, impacting total farm returns. Growing canola (a broadleaf crop in the Brassica family) in traditionally cereal-only rotations also impacts costs due to the use of herbicides that are compatible in rotation with canola and different tillage needs following canola as a result of canola residue breaking down differently than cereal crops (Sowers et al. 2011, Sowers et al. 2012) These impacts affect costs and returns in the year canola is grown and in years later in a rotation. Assessing returns for complete rotations gives a more accurate picture of canola s profitability than assessing returns for a single year. Existing enterprise budget tools are available that estimate individual crop and full rotation returns, but they do not allow for the above rotational impacts that are relevant in comparisons of rotations with and without canola. The enterprise budgets developed as part of WOCS research are specific to growing regions in Washington State and include expanded features that allow for canola s rotational impacts. These computer tools will be available to help users assess the on-farm economics of growing canola, and allows a grower to modify settings to reflect his/her own enterprise. Objectives: To develop user-friendly enterprise budgets specific to four growing regions in Washington State low rainfall (Region 2), intermediate rainfall (Region 2), high rainfall (Region 1), and irrigated (Region 3) that account for canola s rotational impacts and to make the budget tools available to growers, researchers, agricultural industry members, and others. Methods: The WOCS enterprise budgets follow a format developed by Kate Painter at the University of Idaho (UI). To identify cost considerations associated with growing canola, we consulted numerous other researchers and Extension personnel at WSU, UI, and USDA ARS, as well as growers and agricultural industry personnel. We constructed the budgets in Microsoft Excel, added features and formatting to make the budgets flexible and interactive, and entered default crop production schedules, costs, and returns typical for the appropriate growing region. The budgets differ between growing regions according to region-specific crop rotation patterns. Results and Discussion: Each enterprise budget file follows a similar format, with more or fewer individual crop budgets depending on rotations followed in the particular growing region. Each budget file is a Microsoft Excel workbook consisting of the following tabs, where an asterisk indicates tabs with interactive features that users can modify to fit their particular situation: 62

63 Title Page Summary*: Tables summarizing costs and returns by crop and by full rotation. Summary tables utilize formulas which pull from individual crop budget sheets. Formulas update automatically when users change costs in the budgets, allowing for immediate, side-by-side comparison of individual crops and full rotation net returns. (Figure 1) Calendars for canola rotation: General schedule of field operations, inputs, and input rates for a typical rotation(s) including canola. Production activities and inputs account for canola s rotational impacts. Calendar for traditional (non-canola) rotation: General schedule of field operations, inputs, and input rates for traditional rotation(s) excluding canola. Crop budget sheets* (e.g. soft white winter wheat, hard red winter wheat, dark northern spring wheat, winter canola, spring canola, barley, etc. where winter crops include fallow year costs for relevant regions). Separate crop budgets are provided for each crop in rotation with canola and traditional rotations excluding canola (Figure 2) Machinery Complement: Detailed table of each machinery item, annual usage, value, etc. assumed to be owned by a typical farm. Machinery complement values were entered into the University of Idaho s Machinery Cost Program (Smathers et al.) to obtain machinery costs. Machinery Costs* o Tables of annual machinery cost by crop or fallow year. Machinery costs include fixed costs (ownership costs like depreciation, insurance, interest, etc.) and variable costs (operating costs like fuel usage, repairs, etc.). Tables are interactive so users can change the type of machinery used and the number of passes over the field based on the default machinery pieces included in the budgets. (Figure 3) Table 1. Summary of Returns by Crop ($/acre) Over Two-Year Period* Adjust costs on the individual crop budgets in tabs numbered 1-5 and totals will update here on the Summary tab. Revenue Variable Fixed Total Cost (TC) Returns Returns Yield Price per acre Costs (VC) Costs (FC) of Operation over VC over TC Budget: By Crop**: Unit per acre per unit ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) Wheat Rotation: Fallow - WW - Fallow - WW 1 Soft White Winter Wheat (SWWW) bu 50 $6.42 $321 $189 $121 $311 $132 $10 2 Hard Red Winter Wheat (HRWW) bu 45 $7.65 $344 $202 $127 $329 $143 $16 Canola Rotation: Fallow - WC - Fallow - WW 3 Winter Canola (WC) lb 1500 $0.22 $330 $224 $121 $345 $106 -$15 4 Soft White Winter Wheat (SWWW) bu 50 $6.42 $321 $185 $120 $305 $136 $16 5 Hard Red Winter Wheat (HRWW) bu 45 $7.65 $344 $198 $126 $323 $147 $21 *For average annual costs or returns, divide by two. **Crop budgets include costs of preceding summer fallow. Individual crop costs and returns are for a two-year period. Table 2. Summary of Returns by Rotation ($/acre) over Two-Year Period* Click on the rotations below (red text) to select and compare alternative rotations from the drop down menu. Click on these cells to select other Revenue Variable Fixed Total Cost (TC) Returns Returns rotations from drop-down menu per acre Costs (VC) Costs (FC) of Operation over VC over TC Select the Rotation: Budget(s): ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) ($/acre) F-SWWW-F-SWWW 1 $321 $189 $121 $311 $132 $10 F-WC-F-SWWW 3 and 4 $326 $204 $121 $325 $121 $1 *For average annual costs or returns, divide by two. Figure 8 Summary Tab 63

64 Soft White Winter Wheat (wheat rotation) Follow directions below to preserve equations in this spreadsheet. Red Type: You may adjust data in red type & all other data will be updated. Purple Type: Data are from Summary page (purple tab). Green Type: Data are from Input costs page (green tab). Blue Type: Data are from the Machinery Costs page (blue tab). Production Costs for Soft White Winter Wheat Quantity Price or Value or Item Per Acre Unit Cost/Unit Cost/Acre Gross Returns SWWW 50 bu $6.42 $ Variable Costs Seed: $11.70 Wheat Seed 45 lb $0.26 $11.70 Fertilizer: $0.00 Nitrogen 0 lb $0.83 $0.00 Sulfur 0 lb $0.57 $0.00 $0.00 Pesticides: $18.26 Bronate 1.0 pt $6.78 $6.78 Osprey 2.0 oz $3.53 $7.07 Tilt 4.00 oz $0.96 $3.84 M oz $0.19 $0.57 $0.00 Machinery: $28.24 Fuel 2.74 gal $3.60 $9.86 Lubricants 1 acre $1.48 $1.48 Machinery Repairs 1 acre $5.95 $5.95 Machinery Labor 0.55 acre $20.00 $10.95 Custom & Consultants: $0.00 Rental Sprayer 0 acre $2.00 $0.00 Rental Ripper Shooter 0 acre $2.50 $0.00 Custom Aerial 0 acre $8.70 $0.00 Post-harvest storage and transportation 3 : $13.35 Storage 0 month(s) $0.50 $0.00 *Based on rate, share stored: Rate per bu, per month: $0.02 Percentage of crop stored: 50% Long-haul transportation* 50 bu $0.27 $13.35 *Rate based on distance and volume: Roundtrip distance (miles): 100 Rate per mile: $2.67 Load volume (60lb bu): 1000 Other: $13.75 Crop insurance 1 acre $13.75 $13.75 Storage Facility & Equip. Repairs $0.00 Other Labor $0.00 Operating Interest 4 $3.84 Total Variable Costs $89.14 Variable Costs per Unit $ Year Net Returns Above Variable Costs (Fallow + Crop Costs) $ Fixed (Ownership) Costs: Machinery depreciation $7.09 $7.09 Machinery interest $5.67 $5.67 Machinery insurance, taxes, housing, licenses $3.86 $3.86 Interest on summer fallow $4.50 $4.50 Land Cost* 1 acre $72.00 $72.00 *Based on Share Rent Percentage: Landlord 33.00% Tenant 67.00% Overhead 5 $2.00 Management fee 6 $16.00 Total Fixed Costs $ Fixed Costs per Unit $2.43 Total Costs per Acre $ Total Cost per Unit $6.21 Return to Risk 2-Year Net Returns over Total Costs (Fallow + Crop Costs) $10.41 Figure 9 Crop Budget Sheet (Example: Soft White Winter Wheat in a wheat rotation, excluding canola) 64

65 Costs By Crop: Click on crop to see machinery costs by crop. Winter Wheat Table 5 Winter Canola Table 6 Fallow (after WW, before WW) Table 7 Fallow (after WW, before WC) Table 8 Fallow (after WC, before WW) Table 9 Increase or decrease the number of passes for each operation by changing the numbers in red text Table 5. Machinery Costs for Winter Wheat ($/acre) from the University of Idaho Machinery Cost Calculator Fixed (Ownership) Costs Variable Costs Taxes, Fuel Labor Number of housing, insurance, Total Fixed Fuel Use Labor Labor Total Variable Total Cost Operation Passes Depreciation Interest licenses Costs Repairs Lube Cost gal/acre Fuel Cost hrs/acre Cost Costs ($/Acre) Seasonal operations: 300HP Tractor & 26' shredder 0 $ - $ - $ - $ - $ - $ $ $ - $ - 300HP Tractor & 48' harrow 0 $ - $ - $ - $ - $ - $ $ $ - $ - 300HP Tractor & 35' chisel plow 0 $ - $ - $ - $ - $ - $ $ $ - $ - 300HP Tractor & 72' rodweeder 0 $ - $ - $ - $ - $ - $ $ $ - $ - 300HP Tractor & 36' cultivator 0 $ - $ - $ - $ - $ - $ $ $ - $ - 300HP Tractor & 34' tandem disk harrow 0 $ - $ - $ - $ - $ - $ $ $ - $ - 300HP Tractor & 60' coil-packer 0 $ - $ - $ - $ - $ - $ $ $ - $ - 300HP Tractor & 90' sprayer 1 $ 0.33 $ 0.27 $ 0.04 $ 0.64 $ 0.31 $ $ $ 0.61 $ HP Tractor & 36' grain drill 1 $ 0.88 $ 0.97 $ 0.38 $ 2.23 $ 0.91 $ $ $ 1.80 $ 5.70 Combine & 30' header 1 $ 2.48 $ 2.21 $ 0.92 $ 5.61 $ 2.29 $ $ $ 1.83 $ HP Tractor & Bankout wagon 1 $ 0.69 $ 0.50 $ 0.08 $ 1.27 $ 0.39 $ $ $ 1.85 $ 5.05 Annual Costs: Tandem axle truck $ 0.79 $ 0.50 $ 0.81 $ 2.10 $ 0.80 $ $ $ 0.61 $ 1.81 Tandem axle truck $ 0.79 $ 0.50 $ 0.81 $ 2.10 $ 0.80 $ $ $ 0.61 $ ton truck $ 0.22 $ 0.18 $ 0.29 $ 0.69 $ 0.20 $ $ $ 0.20 $ 0.54 Trap wagon $ 0.24 $ 0.11 $ 0.18 $ 0.53 $ 0.08 $ $ $ 0.20 $ /4-ton pick-up $ 0.42 $ 0.29 $ 0.32 $ 1.03 $ 0.12 $ $ $ 1.92 $ 2.87 ATV $ 0.25 $ 0.14 $ 0.03 $ 0.42 $ 0.05 $ $ $ 1.10 $ 1.65 Fixed Cost $/Acre $ 7.09 $ 5.67 $ 3.86 $ $ 5.95 $ $ $ $ $ Figure 10 Machinery Cost Tab (Example: annual machinery costs for winter wheat) Impact/Potential Outcomes: Our budgets will be tools for growers (current, former, or prospective canola growers) and advisors of growers (e.g. researchers, Extension agents, agricultural industry personnel) to use when evaluating the profitability of growing canola in traditional rotations. The additional rotational benefits and costs of canola necessitate looking beyond single year costs and returns to assess profitability. These budgets provide detailed, interactive crop production scenarios that allow users to quickly compare costs and returns between rotations with and without canola. Affiliated projects and funding: We are collaborating with Dr. Kate Painter at the University of Idaho regarding her previous work developing enterprise budgets for Washington growing regions and her current work with the Regional Approaches to Climate Change (REACCH) project, which involves extensive regional grower interviews regarding production practices and costs. Publications: 1. WSU Extension factsheet, submitted and in-review: Wheat and Canola Rotations in Eastern Washington Low Rainfall Regions (<12") 2. WSU Extension factsheet, ready to submit January 2014: Wheat and Canola Rotations in Eastern Washington Intermediate Rainfall Regions (12-16") 65

66 Proposed Future Research/Extension: We will finish the remaining two budgets (high rainfall region and irrigated region) in Budgets for all growing regions will be available through WSU Extension (four factsheets in total). References: Painter, K., H. Donlon, and S. Kane Results of a 2012 Survey of Idaho Oilseed Producer. University of Idaho. Agricultural Economics Extension Series No Smathers, R., P. Patterson, and B. Schroeder. University of Idaho Crop Machinery Cost Calculator (Version 1.30) [Software]. Available from: Sowers, K.E., R.D. Roe, and W. L. Pan Oilseed Production Case Studies in the Eastern Washington High Rainfall Zone. Washington State University Extension. EM037E. Sowers, K.E., R.D. Roe, and W. L. Pan Oilseed Production Case Studies in the Eastern Washington Low-to-Intermediate Rainfall Zone. Washington State University Extension. EM048E. 66

67 Cross-Cutting Title: Modification of hypocotyl length in camelina and canola via manipulation of the AHL gene family PI: Michael M. Neff Ph.D. Funding term and duration: 7/1/2012 6/30/2014 Graduate students: David Favero and Jianfei Zhao are both Ph.D. graduate students contributing to this project. Both receive RAs from other sources of money. They are both in the Molecular Plant Sciences Graduate Program at WSU and working on this gene family in Arabidopsis. Jianfei Zhao defended his Ph.D. in November He will continue working on this project as a postdoc until May Technical Support: Pushpa Koirala (Technician) and Jiwen Qiu (Postdoc) are both working on this gene family in camelina and canola. Both are supported from other sources of money. Background: In low rainfall, dryland cropping areas of Eastern Washington, such as the regions around Washtucna, Lind and Dusty, stand establishment can have a major impact on yields of camelina and canola. During dry years these seeds need to be planted in deep furrows so that the developing seedling has access to soil moisture. In areas with higher rainfall, canola and camelina are often used in rotations where they are planted into wheat stubble left after harvest to reduce erosion and increase soil quality. One approach to facilitate stand establishment in each of these regions is to develop varieties with larger seeds and longer hypocotyls as seedlings while maintaining normal stature as adults. Unfortunately, few mechanisms have been identified that uncouple adult stature from seedling height. The Neff lab has identified a group of plant-specific genes that, when mutated in a particular way, increase seed size and seedling height without adversely affecting adult stature. These genes encode AHL (AT-Hook Containing, Nuclear Localized) proteins. When these proteins are over-expressed, the result is seedlings with shorter hypocotyls. When the activity of multiple genes is disrupted the result is seedlings with taller hypocotyls, demonstrating that these genes control seedling height in a redundant manner (Street et al., 2008). In the Brassica Arabidopsis thaliana, we have identified a unique mutation (sob3-6) in one of these genes, SOB3/AHL29, that expresses a protein with a disrupted DNA-binding domain and a normal protein/protein interaction domain. In Arabidopsis, this mutation confers normal adult plants that produce larger seeds and seedlings with hypocotyl stems that can be more than twice as long as the wild type. Objectives: The goal of this project is to enhance camelina and canola seedling emergence when planted deeply in low-rainfall dryland cropping regions (generally less than 12 /year) or in wheat stubble. This can be achieved by manipulating AHL gene family members to develop varieties that have long hypocotyls as seedlings while maintaining normal growth characteristics as adults. Methods: This project includes three major sub-aims: 1) Continue characterizing the activity of sob3-6-like mutations in other Arabidopsis AHL genes. 2) Generate transgenic camelina and canola plants expressing wild-type and mutant forms of Arabidopsis AHL genes. 3) Identify, clone and characterize AHL gene family members from camelina. 67

68 Results and Discussion: Related to Sub-aim #1- In addition to demonstrating that the sob3-6 allele and sob3-6-like mutations in other AHL proteins confer larger seeds with longer/taller seedlings (see previous progress report), we have identified two additional mechanisms for generating dominant-negative alleles with similar impacts on seed/seedling development. The first approach involves over-expressing a genetic version that creates an AHL protein that is completely missing the AT-hook domain required for binding DNA (Figure 1A). The second approach was discovered based on phylogenic and evolutionary analysis of the AHL gene family in plants. Based on protein alignments we identified a six-amino-acid domain that is completely conserved amongst all AHL proteins identified to date. By deleting these six amino acids, we discovered that this domain is necessary for AHL proteins to bind transcription factors. Over-expressing of this mutant form of protein also leads to seedlings with long hypocotyls (Figure 1B). These results along with a detailed molecular/genetic analysis of the AHL gene family in Arabidopsis have been included in a manuscript that was recently published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA (Zhao et al. 2013). The genetic information described above will also be used in Sub-aim #2 of this project. The method of increasing seed size by deleting this conserved six-aminoacid domain has been submitted as an invention disclosure: Manipulation of a six amino acid subdomain in the AHL protein PPC domain to modulate cell growth Inventors: Michael M. Neff, Jianfei Zhao and David Favero. Owner: Washington State University. Related to Sub-aim #2- As described in our previous progress reports, we have generated transgenic camelina plants over-expressing the sob3-6 allele from Arabidopsis. These transgenic plants lead to taller camelina seedlings that can be planted deeper under dry soil than their non-transgenic siblings. Unfortunately we have also determined that these transgenic events are genetically unstable with the over-expressing transgene being silenced within two to three generations. We have recently generated new transgenic events in order to repeat the experiments described previously. We have shown that these events are also taller than their non-transgenic seedlings and will be repeating the deep-planting experiments with T2 seeds from these T1 transgenic lines. In the next round of funding we will also be generating transgenic camelina plants over-expressing the two new alleles described above and in Figure 1. We will also be generating all three types of mutations in the camelina AHL genes identified as a part of Sub-aim #3 of this project. We have begun growing different varieties of canola for tissue culture transformation. We have also attempted the floral dip method of transformation used in Arabidopsis and camelina. Seeds from that procedure have recently been harvested. We are now developing strategies for rapidly identifying any positive transformation events that may have occurred using the floral dip method. There are two selectable markers that we have used in these transformations. One confers resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin, a method commonly used when generating and characterizing transgenic Arabidopsis. The other uses a dsred fluorescent protein that is expressed in the cotyledons of seeds. This is the method we use for generating transgenic camelina. In the first case we are imbibing seeds in different concentrations of kanamycin before planting in soil. According to this published protocol, transgenic plants conferring kanamycin resistance can be identified within two weeks of treatment and planting. In the second case the dark seed coat prevents visualization of the dsred marker. We are developing a new technique that involves imbibing seeds in a bleach solution to clear the coat such that the dsred 68

69 marker can be visualized. This is a modification of similar approaches used in the Neff lab to sterilize wheat and Kentucky bluegrass seeds. If neither of these approaches work, we will continue with our tissue culture based approaches for generating transgenic canola, a method that takes significantly more time and money but is known to work. Related to Sub-aim #3- We have currently cloned two full-length AHL from camelina using sequence information from the Arabidopsis genome. Over-expression of mutant forms of these genes in camelina did not lead to strong seedling phenotypes, presumably due to transgene silencing, a problem described above in Sub-aim #2. We have shown these camelina AHLs have the same protein/protein and protein/dna interactions as described in Arabidopsis (Zhao et al. 2013). We are also over-expressing mutant and wild-type forms of these and other camelina AHLs in Arabidopsis, which provides us with a rapid genetic platform for describing gene/protein function. We recently discovered that the camelina draft genome sequence has been released. Even though the manuscript describing this work has not been published, the group has given public access to the data in a BLAST searchable form. We are in the process of using this genome sequence to identify and clone additional AHL genes from camelina. Impact/Potential Outcomes: We have now shown that expressing at least three different mutant forms of AHL genes leads to larger seeds and taller seedlings in both Arabidopsis and the oilseed crop camelina. Two of these mutant forms encode proteins with a disrupted or deleted DNA-binding domain. The third form encodes a protein with a deleted AHL/transcription-factor-binding domain. Based on our Arabidopsis research, we may be able to double the size of camelina seeds by generating transgenic plants expressing mutant forms of these genes. Even if the total harvestable oil per plant is unchanged, this may lead to an increase in yield/acre by enhancing stand establishment and reducing harvest loss due to blowing out of the combine. During the current funding period, we have begun identifying AHL gene family members in camelina with two full-length sequences cloned and undergoing further characterization. A key step in this characterization is the demonstration that these and other AHL proteins physically interact with themselves and each other. This observation has led to developing a molecular-genetic method for identifying and cloning AHL family members that are specifically associated with seed and seedling development. This method plays a central role in a USDA/NIFA grant that was recently funded (see below). Affiliated projects and funding: The characterization of the AHL gene family in Arabidopsis was previously supported by a grant from the Department of Energy. The characterization of the AHL gene family in wheat has been supported by grants from the Washington Grain Commission and the Orville A. Vogel Wheat Research Fund both of which are currently up for renewal. We used preliminary data from these funds as well as those from the Washington Grain Commission and the Orville A. Vogel Wheat Research Fund as the basis for a $500,000 three-year grant proposal submitted to the USDA/NIFA entitled Increasing seed size and plant biomass via manipulation of the AHL gene family. Though the proposal was not funded the first time, the panel ranked the proposal as high priority. Based on the progress we made with this project, we resubmitted the proposal to USDA/NIFA, which led to a ranking 69

70 of outstanding and an award of $498,000/three years (start date 12/1/13). Half of this award is for working with wheat, the other half for camelina. Presentations and Publications: We published a manuscript describing our work on AHL proteins/genes in Arabidopsis in PNAS (Zhao et al. 2013). We have submitted a manuscript describing the evolution of this gene family to The Plant Journal. We also published an extension bulletin/abstract for the 2013 WSU field days. In addition Dr. Neff spoke with the following groups about GMOs as well as the AHL gene family and how it can be manipulated to increase seed size and seedling height: 2/14/13, Shepherds Grain Flour Company, Pullman WA, 6 attendees/participants; 2/20/13, Washington Grain Commission Meeting, Pullman WA, ~40 attendees/participants; 3/4/13, Pullman League of Women Voters, Pullman WA, ~30 attendees/participants; 4/6/12, Sandhill Crane Festival, Othello WA, ~50 attendees/participants; 4/17/13, University of Lauzanne, Lauzanne Switzerland, ~30 attendees/participants; 9/5/13, Department of Horticulture, Washington State University, Pullman WA, ~30 attendees/participants; 9/25/13, Washington State University Spokane Campus, Spokane WA, ~70 attendees/participants; 10/28/13, Tomas S. Foley Institute for Public Policy and Public Services, Washington State University, Pullman WA, ~150 attendees/participants; 10/29/13, Washington Grain Commission Meeting, Pullman WA, ~40 attendees/participants; 11/16/13, Tristate Grain Growers Convention, Spokane WA, ~200 attendees/participants. Proposed Future Research/Extension for 2014/2015: Our research focuses on one of the top priority areas identified during the previous meeting in Seattle- seedling establishment. Since our camelina work is now being funded by USDA-NIFA, thanks in part to WOCS funding, we will now focus this project on generating transgenic canola plants expressing wild-type and mutant forms of AHL genes. We are also focusing our efforts on repeating the necessary experiments to write a manuscript describing specifically our biotech engineering of camelina with the AHL mutant forms described above. Extension- It is important to share our results with the general public via extension fact sheets/bulletins. In 2013 our project will include a bulletin describing our work in a manner that can be understood by the layperson. Since our proof-of-principal studies involve transgenic plants, and the oilseed industry utilizes genetically modified organisms (GMO), it is also critically important to educate the public on this controversial topic. Dr. Neff takes on this task as his overarching contribution to extension at WSU. He has developed a workshop that has been and will be presented at many meetings. In addition to discussing genetically modified organisms (GMOs), Dr. Neff talks about transgenic crops including the methods, pros and cons of GMOs and biotechnology. The goal of this workshop is to discuss the science behind the technology so that knowledgeable opinions can be developed on a case-by-case basis. References: Street, I.H., P.K. Shah, A.M. Smith, N. Avery, and M.M. Neff The AT-Hook Containing Proteins SOB3/AHL29 and ESC/AHL27 are Negative Modulators of Hypocotyl Growth in Arabidopsis. Plant Journal 54:1-14. Zhao J, D. Favero, H. Peng, and M.M. Neff The Arabidopsis thaliana AHL Family Modulates Hypocotyl Growth Redundantly by Interacting with Each Other via the PPC/DUF296 Domain. 70

71 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 110:48 E4688-E4697 doi: /pnas Tables/Graphs: A B Figure 1. Over-expressing an AHL protein in Arabidopsis lacking the AT-hook domain leads to taller seedlings and larger seeds (A), as does overexpressing an AHL protein in Arabidopsis that lacks six amino acids required for AHL/transcriptionfactor interactions (B). Scale Bars = 1cm. Adapted from Zhao et al