The Impact of Social and Contextual Attributes of a Volunteering Activity on Employee Outcomes: A Pilot-Study
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1 The Impact of Social and Contextual Attributes of a Volunteering Activity on Employee Outcomes: A Pilot-Study Introduction For many the legitimacy of organizations is increasingly linked to a demonstrated commitment to address pressing environmental and social issues (Bowen, Newenham- Kahindi & Herremanas, 2010; Basil, Runte, Easwaramoorthy & Barr, 2009; Peloza & Hassay, 2006). Employer-sponsored volunteering is one way for organizations to demonstrate such commitment, and is an approach that appears to be growing in popularity (Grant, 2007; de Gilder, Schuyt & Breedijk, 2005). Peloza and Hassay (2006) describe employer-sponsored volunteering as the passive or strategic support of volunteering tasks undertaken by employees in the community. Employer-sponsored volunteering enables organizations to engage with local communities through their employees, to respond to social issues, and to facilitate the expression of care and compassion for many needy individuals, groups, communities and causes (Grant, 2012; Muthuri, Matten & Moon, 2009). Interest in employee volunteering has also been stimulated by evidence that employees are attracted to companies that are socially responsible (Peterson, 2004; Turban & Greening, 1997), that volunteering may promote the development of human and social capital (Booth, Park & Glomb, 2009; Caligiuri, Mencin & Jiang, 2013; Muthuri et al., 2009; Peterson, 2003) and that corporate volunteering programmes can enhance worker morale, commitment, satisfaction and loyalty (de Gilder et al., 2005). Moreover, researchers have highlighted the potential for volunteering experiences to buffer against the negative effects of impoverished jobs and to trigger positive spillover and thereby enhance perceptions of meaningfulness and improve job performance (Grant, 2012; Rodell, 2013; Spitzmuller & Van Dyne, 2013). Fundamental to the success of employer-sponsored volunteering is sustaining employee participation and engagement. Much of the research exploring the antecedents of employee involvement in volunteering initiatives has adopted a functional perspective, a perspective that largely privileges the role of dispositional attributes and the perceived benefits associated with employee participation. However, lately researchers have argued for the important contribution of contextual elements, suggesting that a comprehensive understanding of employee volunteer behavior will require greater attention to situational factors such as organizational support, cultural dimensions, and the nature of the volunteering activity itself (e.g. Boezeman & Ellemers, 2009; Grant, 2007; Hartenian & Lilly, 2009; MacPhail & Bowles, 2009; Pajo & Lee, 2011). Accordingly, this research draws on recent contributions from the work design literature to consider how task attributes of activities undertaken as part of an employee volunteering initiative impact on both individual-level proximal and distal outcomes. Literature Review The role of tasks in motivating people or giving meaning to peoples work is not a new concept. Hackman and Oldham s (1976) Job Characteristic Theory has been tested extensively, and meta-analytic evidence has corroborated the critical contributions of task significance, autonomy and feedback in driving employee work-related motivation, satisfaction and performance (Humphrey, Nahrgang & Morgeson, 2007). Furthermore, the relevance of work design elements has also been explored in the personal volunteering context. For example, Schroer and Hertel (2009) investigated the motivations of volunteers contributing to the German Wikipedia project and found that autonomy, skill variety, task
2 significance and feedback were all influential in determining levels of engagement and satisfaction with the volunteering activity. Notwithstanding the strong evidential base supporting the critical role of task attributes, job design theory has nevertheless been criticized for neglecting the contextual and social aspects of work (Grant & Parker, 2009; Humphrey et al., 2007; Morgeson & Campion, 2003; Oldham & Hackman, 2010). These criticisms have prompted researchers to develop expanded models that focus on more than just the structural attributes of tasks. For example, Humphrey et al (2007) developed a work design model that incorporated social characteristics of the work such as opportunities for interacting with others outside of the organization and access to social support. Using meta-analysis they found that these social attributes explained additional variance in outcomes over and above the core motivational attributes of the work itself. They went on to suggest that the positive emotions generated from social activity and interactions with others are important for employee motivation, satisfaction and well-being. Similarly, Grant (2007) has proposed a job impact framework that focuses on how work contexts might prompt employees to be motivated to care about others and want to make a prosocial difference. He suggests that enriching the relational architecture of jobs, that is, providing opportunities for employees to positively affect the well-being of beneficiaries and providing opportunities for employees to interact with beneficiaries, will reinforce employee motivation to make a prosocial difference and will increase employee effort, persistence, and helping behavior. Moreover, he argues that engaging in prosocial actions facilitates the construction of an identity as a competent, selfdetermined, and socially valued individual, and that this identity makes it more likely that an employee will be motivated to help others and to make a difference. Pajo and Lee (2011) undertook a case study of a corporate sponsored volunteering initiative at IBM and drew on work design theory and on Grant s (2007) job impact framework to interpret employees explanations for their participation. While they found that altruistic or humanitarian concerns (a generalized desire to do good) was an important driver for employee involvement, characteristics of the volunteering activity also emerged as especially salient. In particular, they report that employees frequently mentioned the meaningfulness, significance and impact of the volunteering activity, and that this appeared to be a major source of satisfaction for many of the respondents. Likewise, other attributes of the volunteering activity, chiefly the social and team-based nature of the task which required volunteers to interact with beneficiaries and with co-workers, and the opportunity it afforded for employees to experience something different from their every-day work activities, were prominent reasons for volunteering. An issue for much of the CSR literature is the preponderance of organizational-level and institutional-level research. Aguinis and Glavas (2012) have reported that only 4% of the CSR-outcome studies included in their meta-analysis were operationalized at the individual level. They go on to argue that the absence of studies at the individual-level is likely to contribute to difficulties elucidating underlying mechanisms linking CSR practices and outcomes. Likewise, Wood (2007) has also been critical of much of the CSR literature which tends to favour upper echelon perspectives and downplay the views of lower-level employees. We respond to these concerns through this pilot study that adopts a survey-based design to investigate the relative contribution of the perceived impact of a volunteering activity, interaction with beneficiaries, interaction with co-workers, and the novelty of the volunteering task on a range of individual-level proximal (attachment to beneficiaries,
3 volunteering performance, satisfaction with the volunteering task) and distal outcomes (intentions to volunteer, perceptions of the organization as socially responsible). Method Procedure Data was collected from employees who participated in an employee volunteering project organized and implemented by a volunteering broker organization that recruits and refers volunteers. A staff member from the broker organization contacted team leaders of employees that participated in the project to explain the study and request participation. Those that agreed were sent an with a link to the web-based survey to forward to each member of their team, requesting participation. A follow up was sent one week later. Participants The invitation to participate in the survey was sent to 34 team leaders who were asked to forward the invitation on to a total of 434 team members. Of these, 40 complete responses were received, equating to a 9.2% response rate. Participants were 54.3% females and 45.7% males, with the majority aged between 25 and 44 (70.2%). Most of the respondents (73%) were from large organizations employing more than 1000 staff, predominately within the financial and insurance services industry (54.1%). Measures The survey began by asking respondents to briefly describe the most recent employee volunteering activity they had undertaken. This then became the focal activity for subsequent assessments of task attributes and relational architecture. Using data from a recent experience is consistent with Houghton, Gable and Williams (2009), who argue that the most recent volunteering task has the most influence on intentions. Respondents are also more likely to accurately recall the volunteering task, and can be more specific when describing perceptions. Survey questions and measurement scales were developed to assess the major predictor and outcome variables. All scale items were measured using a 7-point Likert scale that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Principal components analysis (PCA) of the predictor items yielded a 4-factor solution (contact with beneficiaries, contact with coworkers, impact of the volunteering task, task novelty) with items loading on the relevant components. Outcome measures were separated into proximal attitudes (attachment to beneficiaries, satisfaction with volunteering activity), proximal behaviors (volunteering task effort, volunteering task persistence), and distal outcomes (volunteering intentions, perceptions of organization as socially responsible). PCAs of indicators for attitudes and for distal outcomes yielded the anticipated factor structure. However, the PCA of behaviors revealed a single factor, therefore the effort and persistence items were combined into one volunteering task performance measure. Composite scores for each measure were formed by averaging across all items in the scale, and all scales showed acceptable reliability (alpha coefficients are reported in Table 1). Results Means, standard deviations, and correlations are reported in Table 1, with alpha coefficients on the diagonal. Mean scores on all scales were elevated well above the midpoints, suggesting that this was a sample that was well disposed toward employee volunteering. Nevertheless, as expected the relational architecture of the volunteering activity was
4 associated with employee-related volunteering outcomes. More specifically, contact with beneficiaries was (a) positively related to attachment to beneficiaries (r =.54, p <.01), and (b) positively related to volunteering performance (r =.34, p <.05). The other component of the relational architecture, the perceived impact of the volunteering task on beneficiaries, had a broader influence as evidenced by significant correlations with all of the outcome variables. Not only was the perceived impact of the volunteering task associated with greater persistence and effort during volunteering (r =.42, p <.01), enhanced satisfaction with the volunteering activity (r =.38, p <.05), and stronger intentions to undertake further volunteering (r =.41, p <.05), but it was also the only antecedent variable to be related to improved CSR perceptions of the organization (r =.44, p <.01). The other social dimension of the volunteering activity, interaction with co-workers, had more limited effects being associated only with satisfaction with the volunteering task (r =.32, p <.05). Finally, the novelty of the volunteering task or the opportunity for a break from the employees normal work routine was associated with improved volunteering performance (r =.49, p <.01), greater satisfaction (r =.54, p <.01), and stronger intentions to undertake further volunteering (r =.36, p <.05). Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations among Variables Variables M (SD) Beneficiary interaction 4.8 (1.8) (.93) 2. Co-worker interaction 6.2 (0.6).06 (.69) 3. Task impact 5.5 (0.9) * (.77) 4. Task novelty 6.6 (0.6) **.10 (.87) 5. Volunteering performance 5.6 (0.9).34 * **.49 ** (.86) 6. Volunteering satisfaction 6.2 (1.0) *.38 *.54 **.77 ** (.94) 7. Attachment to beneficiaries 4.8 (1.2).54 ** ** **.50 ** (.84) 8. Volunteering intentions 6.2 (0.7) *.36 *.39 *.44 **.40 * (.76) 9. CSR perceptions 6.0 (0.7) ** ** (.86) n=40; * p <.05; ** p <.01; reliabilities are reported in parentheses along the diagonal. The pattern of results from correlation analysis is supportive of the predictions from Grant s (2007) job impact framework and suggests that the relational architecture of volunteering tasks is influential in shaping employee behaviour and attitudes, but the relative contribution of each independent variable is unclear. To further explore their relative contribution we undertook a series of analyses regressing both proximal and distal employee outcomes on the set of predictor variables. The results from these analyses are presented in table 2 below. Characteristics of the volunteering activity accounted for significant variance in the prediction of all of the outcome variables. Of the proximal outcomes the predictor variables explained (a) 47% of the variance in employee effort and persistence during the volunteering activity; (b) 45% of the variance in employee satisfaction with the volunteering task; and (c) 64% of the variance in employee attachment to beneficiaries. The relational architecture of the volunteering activity had strong positive effects on the proximal outcomes. Increasing volunteer interaction with beneficiaries lead to improved volunteer performance (β =.29, p <.05) and to stronger attachment and identification with beneficiaries (β =.46, p <.01). Likewise, as the perceived impact of the volunteering activity on beneficiaries increased so too did employee satisfaction with volunteering (β =.32, p <.05), employee performance during the volunteering event (β =.37, p <.05), and their attachment to beneficiaries (β =.60, p <.01). The other social dimension of the volunteering activity, the opportunity to interact
5 with co-workers, did not account for any significant variance in proximal outcomes. However, the contextual attribute of task novelty emerged as the strongest predictor of satisfaction with the volunteering activity (β =.54, p <.01) and employee performance during the volunteering event (β =.51, p <.01). Table 2. Regression Analyses Predicting Volunteering Outcomes Proximal Outcomes Distal Outcomes Variables Volunteering performance Satisfaction with volunteering Attachment to beneficiaries Volunteering intentions CSR perceptions β β β β β 1. Beneficiary interaction.29 * ** Co-worker interaction Task impact.37 **.32 *.60 **.38 *.46 ** 4. Task novelty.51 **.54 ** *.29 R R Model F 7.76 ** 7.02 ** 9.25 ** 3.62 * 2.86 * df = 39; * p <.05; ** p <.01 For the distal outcomes the predictor variables explained 31% of the variance in volunteering intentions and 26% of the variance in employee CSR perceptions. The perceived impact of the volunteering activity on beneficiaries was especially influential, with increases in this attribute associated with a stronger propensity to volunteer in the future (β =.38, p <.05) and more positive impressions of the organization as socially responsible (β =.46, p <.01). The only other volunteering task attribute that predicted a distal outcome was task novelty, and this was linked solely to a greater likelihood to engage in future volunteering (β =.36, p <.05). References Aguinis, H., & Glavas, A. (2012). What we know and don t know about corporate social responsibility: A review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 38, Basil, D., Runte, M., Easwaramoorthy, M. M., & Barr, C. (2009). Company support for employee volunteering: A national survey of companies in Canada. Journal of Business Ethics, 85, Booth, J. E., Won Park, K., & Glomb, T.N. (2009). Employer-supported volunteering benefits, gift exchange among employers, employees, and volunteer organizations. Human Resource Management, 48(2), Boezeman, E. J., & Ellemers, N. (2009). Intrinsic need satisfaction and the job attitudes of volunteers versus employees working in a charitable volunteer organization. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 82(4), Bowen, F., Newenham-Kahindi, A., & Herremans, I. (2010). When suits meet roots: The antecedents and consequences of community engagement strategy. Journal of Business Ethics, 95, Caligiuri, P., Mencin, A., & Jiang, K. (2013). Win-win-win: The influence of company-sponsored volunteerism programs on employees, NGOs, and business units. Personnel Psychology, 66, de Gilder, D., Schuyt, T. M., & Breedijk, M. (2005). Effects of an employee volunteering program on the work force: The ABN-AMRO case. Journal of Business Ethics, 61(2), Grant, A. M. (2007). Relational job design and the motivation to make a prosocial difference. Academy of Management Review, 32(2),
6 Grant, A. M. (2012). Giving time, time after time: Work design and sustained employee participation in corporate volunteering. Academy of Management Review, 37 (4), Grant, A. M., & Parker, S. K. (2009). Redesigning work design theories: The rise of relational and proactive perspectives. Academy of Management Annals, 3, Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, Hartenian, L. S., & Lilly, B. (2009). Egoism and commitment: A multidimensional approach to understanding sustained volunteering. Journal of Managerial Issues, 21(1), Houghton, S., Gabel, J., & Williams, D. (2009). Connecting the two faces of CSR: Does employee volunteerism improve compliance? Journal of Business Ethics, 87(4), Humphrey, S. E., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Integrating motivational, social, and contextual work design features: A meta-analytic summary and theoretical extension of the work design literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, MacPhail, F., & Bowles, P. (2009). Corporate social responsibility as support for employee volunteers: Impacts, gender puzzles and policy implications in Canada. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(3), Morgeson, F. P., & Campion, M. A. (2003). Work design. In W. C. Borman, D. R. Ilgen, & R. J. Klimoski (eds.), Handbook of Psychology: Volume 12 Industrial and Organizational Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ. pp Muthuri, J. N., Matten, D., & Moon, J. (2009). Employee volunteering and social capital: Contributions to corporate social responsibility. British Journal of Management, 20(1), Oldham, G. R., & Hackman, J. R. (2010). Not what it was and not what it will be: The future of job design research. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 31(2/3), Pajo, K., & Lee, L. (2011). Corporate-sponsored volunteering: A work design perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(3), Peloza, J., & Hassay, D. (2006). Intra-organizational volunteerism: Good soldiers, good deeds and good politics. Journal of Business Ethics, 64(4), Peterson, D. K. (2003). Benefits of participation in corporate volunteer programs: Employees perceptions. Personnel Review, 33, Peterson, D. K. (2004). Recruitment strategies for encouraging participation in corporate volunteer programs. Journal of Business Ethics, 49(4), Rodell, J. B. (2013). Finding meaning through volunteering: Why do employees volunteer and what does it mean for their jobs? Academy of Management Journal, 56, Schroer, J., & Hertel, G. (2009). Voluntary engagement in an open web-based encyclopedia: Wikipedians and why they do it. Media Psychology, 12, Spitzmuller, M., & Van Dyne, L. (2013). Proactive and reactive helping: Contrasting the positive consequences of different forms of helping. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, Turban, D. B., & Greening, D. W. (1997). Corporate social performance and organizational attractiveness to prospective employees. Academy of Management Journal, 40, Wood, E. (2007). What about me? The importance of understanding the perspective of non-managerial employees in research on corporate citizenship. In F. den Hond, F. G. A. de Bakker, & P. Neergaard (eds.), Managing Corporate Social Responsibility in Action: Talking, Doing, and Measuring. Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot, Hampshire. pp
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