Characteristics and Development of Agrarian Reform in Asia

Transcription

1 Humboldt University Berlin International Master Science of Rural Development (IMRD) Characteristics and Development of Agrarian Reform in Asia (short paper with poster) Kennvidy SA (512757) Module: Land and Water Management Sub-Module: Land Management Lecturer: Christian Graefen, Jana Orphal and Andreas Gläsel Semester: Summer

2 Table of content Table of content Introduction Characteristics of agrarian reform Aims of agrarian reform Agrarian structure Redistributive land reforms Development of agrarian reform Discussion and Conclusion Reference: Annex:

3 1. Introduction In Asia, agrarian reforms have caused changes to agrarian structure in the past 30 years but only the special reforms cases have been recorded. Agrarian Reform refers to the redistribution of agricultural resources in a country. Traditionally, agrarian or land reform is confined to the redistribution of land in which it includes relative changes like credit, taxation, rents, and cooperatives in agricultural institutions 1. There are few land owners possess major portion of land in which they offer those small sharecroppers to farm on it. Many farmers received only small portion of the farms and they are generally indebted, some poorer farmers may have no lands and yet they are unemployed. Despite all the negative impacts on poor farmers and the poverty pressure among rural areas, there shows no improvements to these areas due to the limited access to the necessary services and the restriction (i.e. no freedom) to review the problems among these farmers. These shortcomings and poor conditions in rural areas require not only changes in the land tenure system, but the measures on reorganizing land usage and management. The process of agrarian reform has implications on general agricultural and economic growth, as well as the social justice and the expression of freedom in the society (Kuhnen, 1982). This seminary paper is presented with posters with an objective to share with readers who are interested in the topics of agrarian reforms. Besides the studies and understanding of the Characteristic and Development of Agrarian Reform in Asia in this paper, it shares also the definition, goals and categories of agrarian reform. The final session of this report will be discussing Land Reform in Cambodia. 2. Characteristics of agrarian reform Express the idea LOCOA 2 (2005), Agrarian reform (AR) is the redistribution of public and private agricultural lands, regardless of produce and tenurial arrangement, to the farmers without any land and regular farm workers. The reform process includes general support services and other alternative arrangements other than land distribution, such as production/profit sharing, labor organization, or distribution of shares. Moreover, ANGOC and ILC, 2006 declared that Agrarian reform legislations, policies and programs in Asia were the direct result of occupation forces (Japan, Taiwan in the 1950s); revolutionary governments (China, 1950s), military dictatorships seeking popular support (Philippines, 1972), popular movements and public pressure (Philippines, 1988) or responses to breakdowns in centralized planning systems (Cambodia after 1995). However, the mere presence of policies does not always lead to effective implementation. 1 (Accessed: 14. August.2007) 2 Leaders and Organizers of Community Organization in Asia. 3

4 2.1. Aims of agrarian reform Agrarian reform always refers to the ownership transfer by a relatively small number of wealthy (or noble) owners with excessive land possessions (e.g. plantations, large ranches, or agribusiness plots) to the individual or collective ownership by those who work on the land (LOCOA, 2005). The objectives of agrarian reform include: Political goal: The reform participates to redistribute existing land, reduce the inequality of landholdings, partitions of large farms, and eliminate the feudalistic structure. Also, this reform helps farmers become independent producers and electorates (democratize the society). Without landlords deciding for them, farmers are able to choose for good people in government and in their cooperative societies, exact greater responsibility and better public service Agrarian policy goal: The reform intends to promote family-based farming, reorganize the farm size structure and create cooperative large farms. Economic goal: The reform achieves to intensify agricultural production, mobilize the agricultural production potential, colonize new land, improve the factor and market contribution of agriculture, diversify production and create additional employment opportunities. Social goal: The reform realizes to distribute income and property of the rural population more equally and improve the social status of the rural population. Image 01: Redistributive Land Reforms in Asia 2.2. Agrarian structure ANGOC and ILC, 2006 said that majority of Asian countries remain essentially agrarian. Nevertheless, countries can be classified into three broad categories, based on their dominant agrarian structures: Industrialized economies: Most of these countries and regions have implemented land reforms in the post-world War II period, mainly under totalitarian regimes or by occupation 4

5 forces. These countries have undergone agricultural modernization and some level of land reforms, with a lesser segment of the population directly involved in agriculture. Countries: Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and China. Emerging market economies: These are countries where collectivization of agriculture was earlier introduced under communist revolutionary governments. There is a fairly equitable distribution of resources and a large segment of the population is involved in production. Gradually being opened to forces of the market. Countries: China, Vietnam, Cambodia, North Korea, and Central Asian Republics. Feudal and traditional agricultural economies: These are countries where traditional patterns exist with a feudal or semi-feudal character, with lands held by absentee owners or corporations. Past land reforms have been left largely unimplemented, except for a few (Philippines, Kerala, and West Bengal in India). A large portion of the population is involved in production, mostly subsistence agriculture, on small, family-size farms. These countries are increasingly exposed to market forces and modernization. Countries: All countries of South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka) and most countries of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, Myanmar). (Antonio B., 2005) Redistributive land reforms The different types of redistributive land reforms have been legislated and implemented across the Asian region with the intention of creating access to land for the poor, providing security of tenure, and promoting greater equity in landholdings. Past State-led interventions in Asia have included one or a combination of the following common features: Land ceilings: The State imposes a maximum limit, or ceiling on the size of agricultural landholding that an individual or family can own or possess. Lands above this ceiling are either confiscated or compulsorily purchased by the State for free redistribution or resale. Land ceilings were a common feature in many past agrarian reform programs, especially in South Asia. In some countries, expropriation of land of absentees was higher than that for resident landlords, or the absentees were even totally expropriated as, for instance, in Japan, Taiwan and Indonesia (Kuhnen, 1971) (see annex). Land expropriation and redistribution of private lands: Private lands are either confiscated or compulsorily purchased by the State for free redistribution or resale. Lands may be distributed either to individual families, or collectively - to communities, cooperatives or production collectives. Reform of tenancy and land-lease arrangements: This is also often called tenancy reform whereby the State fixes, or imposes ceilings on the leasehold rents or sharing arrangements between landowner and tenant. In some countries (Philippines), sharecropping arrangements are transformed into leasehold, or fixed rental arrangements. It also includes granting tenant s security of tenure on the land. 5

6 Agrarian reform settlements & resettlement: The State opens up new lands, usually by clearing classified forest lands for agricultural expansion. In some cases, the State creates new settlements in degraded or marginal lands, or in new agricultural frontier areas. Examples of this approach were the transmigration program in Indonesia (1950s-.90s), the homestead program in the Philippines (1950s-.60s), and the expansion of rubber and palm oil plantations in Peninsular Malaysia (1970s-.80s) under schemes implemented by the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) and the Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA). Recognition of customary land and resource rights: To varying degrees, the State grants formal recognition to the customary land rights especially of indigenous people s communities and tribes. These rights may range from harvesting and user rights, to ancestral domain land titles. There are also varying degrees to which customary law is applied on the use and management of the land and resources. Land rights are usually held in common (as collective rights or property). Long-term / user-rights: The State gives legal recognition to long-term in situ tenurial security and user rights either to individual families or to communities over forestlands or common resources. This recognition is often premised on the expectation that user groups will practice resource conservation and sustainable management, if they hold tenure over such resources. There has been a marked increase in community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) schemes since the 1990s. Formalization of ownership and/or tenure: The State formalizes the de facto land ownership or tenurial rights of longtime settlers or users. This is necessary in a large number of cases where both land and occupants remain undocumented. Redistribution of public lands: The State redistributes existing government lands, or else reclassifies and alienates State lands for redistribution to the landless (ANGOC and ILC, 2006). 3. Development of agrarian reform The agrarian reforms in the developing countries in Asia have incurred huge impact on both the economy and social lives of the people living in rural areas, whereby these people solely rely on the agricultural sector for their employment and income. There are few underlying goals of agrarian reforms are maintained as the guiding principles: - To increase productivity of the agriculture and allied sectors; - To promote equitable access and reward to all deserving people in rural areas - To create changes and improvement among human relations by reducing dependences on each other and increasing organization of targeted groups (Kuhnen, 1996). Similarly Prosterman and Hanstad, 2000 mentioned that Land reform can be conducted to increase crop production and improve nutrition for the poor households. This acts as a foundation 6

7 for the poor household in terms of sustaining economic growth with improved access to credit and to create a more democratic society with reduced social unrest and instability, and to provide better environmental stewardship and have better control on urbanization with reference to the growth of the society. According to AsiaDHRRA 3, 2004, it stated after land distribution in Japan (1948), the percentage of self-owned land had been increased from 53.7% to 91.0%. The percentage of selfcultivating farmers (self-cultivatable rate: %) rose from 51.5% to 88.2%, whereas the percentage of tenant farmers (self-cultivatable rate: less than 50%) dropped from 48.5% to 11.8%. These statistics demonstrate that comprehensive agrarian reform had introduce a drastic change in the agrarian structure. In addition, Reyes (2002) supported that agrarian reform has brought positive impacts on farmers benefits. As compared to non-agrarian reform, the agrarian reform farmers tend to receive better benefits in terms of higher incomes and less incidences related to poverty. These framers will be rewarded with complementary inputs such as irrigation, credit and government services. Moreover, LOCOA 4 (2005) stressed that agrarian reform has brought development to Asian countries. For example: Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan top the lists of the developed countries in Asia whereby their government has put in lots of effort to ensure the growth of their nation and society with stable economy, to beat poverty and maintain prosperity among its citizens. Some three generations ago, these countries economy relied on agriculture and they were as poor as most Asian countries but they had developed fast with their nations, with a direction to help and convert majority of their population who were farmers to create a better and prosperous life. Many scholars have involved and contributed their knowledge to improve the economy of these successful countries, with the successful implementation of comprehensive agrarian reform program. 4. Discussion and Conclusion Ideally speaking, agrarian reform play an important part to create a strong economy in a developing country with majority populations survive on agriculture production. The redistribution of land to landless and land-poor rural families is one of the most important measures to be taken to foster rural development. The offer of Land ownership provide flexibilities to millions of tillers whereby they have more decisions on their planning such as type of plantation they chose and the framing seasons for different varieties of plantations; their have better control on the land usage and the term and conditions dealing with their buyers. With the implementation of more comprehensive program inclusive of better credit system and financial support, technology and 3 Asian Partnership for the Development of Human Resources in Rural Asia 4 Leaders and Organizers of Community Organization in Asia 7

8 various infrastructure developments in rural areas, these farmers will be able to improve and increase their productivity. In order to develop further and grow with the expanding domestic market, many businesses will slowly diversify and advance themselves, paving the way to industrialization. Industrialization further develops more efficient farm technologies to improve cost and time saving for their productions. Upon moving towards more advance and productive industries, entire nation will be able to move one step ahead to globalize their sales and production, to compete other countries. In general, land owners directly related to land bureau under the government in many countries in which these land owner will have strong influence on the election of the country. Indirectly, farmers work under the land owners will be controlled in supporting their favored parties to be the government. In the political view, agrarian reform helps many farmers to become independent producers and voters and creates more freedom on the election. Without landlords deciding for them, farmers are able to vote for their preferred parties to be their government who can provide and improve better public service. Culturally, agrarian reform is basically a social justice program which uplifts and affirms the inherent dignity of people. They in turn become more responsible citizens with confidence to face the rest of society, ushering in greater unity and peace. Records show that the practice of Agrarian reform was not successful in several countries. According to IBON, 2005, it reported that there is an increasing inequality in the distribution of land holdings in Cambodia, with an estimated 20% of the poorest families having no land and around 20% of the richest families holding 60% of available land. Majority of landholdings are small in areas and there are only 10% of the families hold more than 3 hectares of land. In general, families staying in rural areas should own at least 3 hectares of land to derive sufficient income to meet their livelihood needs. It was also found that families holding up to 0.5 hectares of land will be affected paradoxically as compared to those landless situations because these families will be exhausted by the limited land which they will focus to make their income and overlook other opportunities to bring in their income from other source. ANGOC and ILC, 2006 stated that central government and its agents had significantly interfered in the land disputes, making it difficult to be resolved; if not impossible, these cases will be handled by the provincial authorities without any fruitful results. The numbers of Landless farmers is on the rise resulted from the combined effects of the market economy and the wholesale 8

9 privatization of previously common resources such as forests and wetlands. Recent news also shows that distress sales of lands among poor farmers are increasing. Furthermore, LOCOA, 2005 stressed that if the country wish to make agrarian reform program successful, three necessary steps and actions need to be considered and improved with reference to the past experiences of Japan, South Korea and Taiwan as follows: - First step: governments shall distribute and offer land for the farmers to cultivate. Governments shall have better control of land possession among the nations. They should restudy the land allocation and possession under private landlord so that they can collect back those lands for re-sale to farmers at their affordable and reasonable prices. Laws shall be implemented and enforced to protect the interests of poor farmers so as to reduce the burden of farmers before they become more independent. - Second step: the government shall look into effective ways to increase farmers production so as to increase their income. There are many constructive points to be considered such as : 1. Irrigation systems shall be developed to provide continuous water supplies especially for the rice farms; 2. Agricultural research centre shall be organized so that agriculturists will be able to study and improve modern farm technologies and their research will benefit the farmers on improving their productions and harvest; 3. Production loans, fertilizers and pesticides shall be made available at lower prices (if possible, shall be subsidized by Government) to increase yield; 4. Farm machineries shall be invented and utilized to make easy cultivation of farm land, collection of weed and for the harvest; 5. Warehouses accessible to the farms shall be built for the storage of farm yields and sales or marketing. Last but not least, government shall protect the profit of farmers by imposing standard market selling price for farm products and to implement rules or laws to avoid food commodities manipulations in the markets. - Step 3, government shall actively support the formation of agricultural associations and/or cooperatives so that the farmers will be able to help themselves. With association or cooperatives organized by the farmers, they will become more active and enthusiastic to develop further and make advancement. Farmers understand that they will be able to bring in better profit if they can help each other to acquire more information, facilities, loans and other government support for their production, marketing and processing needs. 9

10 5. Reference: - ANTONIO, B. and QUIZON. (2005): Asian NGO Perspectives on Agrarian Reform and Access to Land, ANGOC Policy Discussion Paper. - ANGOC and ILC. (2006): Enhancing Access of the Poor to Land and Common Property Resources: A Resource Book. Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (ANGOC), Quezon City, Philippines and the International Land Coalition (ILC), Rome, Italy - AsiaDHRRA, (2004): Shaping the Asian Peasant Agenda: Solidarity Building Towards Sustainable Rural Development in Asian Rural Communities, p HAAS, H. and MEYER R. Land Tenure in Development Cooperation. - IBON. (2005): Fifty Years of Japan ODA. A critical review for ODA reform, p PROSTERMAN, R.L. and HANSTAD, T. (2000): Land Reform: A Revised Agenda for the 21st Century, p KUHNEN, F. (1982): Man and Land. - KUHNEN, F. (1971): Land Tenure and Agrarian Reform in Asia. - KUHNEN, F. (1996): Land Tenure in Development Cooperation. - LOCOA. (2005): Agrarian Reform STILL a vital strategy for development. - REYES, C.M. (2002): Impact of Agrarian Reform on Poverty. - (Accessed: 14. August.2007). 10

11 Annex: The majority at Asian countries have issued laws fixing the maximum size of land holdings. Ceilings have been fixed as follows: West Pakistan 200 ha irrigated or 400 ha non-irrigated land (reduced in 1972 to150 acres irrigated or 300 acres non-irrigated land); India Philippines about 3 family holdings varying with the conditions and between states; 75 ha (in 1971 lowered to 24 ha); Indonesia density; 5 15 ha irrigated land, 6 20 ha upland, varying according to population Nepal varying with different regions from 2.7 ha to 16.4 ha for owner-cultivated holdings, and from 0.5 ha to 2.7 ha for tenanted land; Japan Korea Taiwan 3 ha; 3 ha; 3 ha (this restriction has been relaxed subsequently) Source: Kuhnen F.,